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NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS ORCA 90 


National Status and Trends Program 

for Marine Environmental Quality 



Natural and Anthropogenic Events Impacting Florida Bay 
1910 - 1994 Time Line 



Silver Spring, Maryland 
October 1995 

US Department of Commerce 

noaa NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION 


National Ocean Service 

Office of Ocean Resources Conservation and Assessment 
Coastal Monitoring and Bioeffects Assessment Division 





























































NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS ORCA 90 


Natural and Anthropogenic Events Impacting Florida Bay 
1910 - 1994 Time Line 


A. Y. Cantillo, L. Pikula, J. Beattie, E. Collins, K. Hale, and T. Schmidt 



Silver Spring, Maryland 
October 1995 


United States 
Department of Commerce 

Ronald H. Brown 
Secretary 


National Oceanic and 
Atmospheric Administration 

D. James Baker 
Under Secretary 


National Ocean Service 

W. Stanley Wilson 
Assistant Administrator 




' fbUt i 


























q&- lasses 






TABLE OF CONTENTS 


LIST OF TABLES.j 

LIST OF FIGURES.jjj 

ACRONYMS AND SYMBOLS.v 

ABSTRACT.1 

1. INTRODUCTION.1 

2. DESCRIPTION OF FLORIDA BAY ECOSYSTEM.2 

3. INFORMATION GATHERING METHODS.8 

4. NAVIGATION AND CARTOGRAPHY.9 

4.1. Charts and maps.9 

4.1.1. NOAA charts.9 

4.1.2. USGSmaps.11 

4.2. Coast Pilot.1 1 

4.3. Aerial photography and remote sensing.13 

5. ATMOSPHERIC, GEOLOGICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA.1 4 

5.1. South Florida climate.14 

5.1.1. Weatherstations.15 

5.1.2. Tornadoes.15 

5.1.3. Hurricanes.18 

5.2. El Nino events.2 2 

5.3. Volcanic eruptions.2 3 

5.4. Solar cycles .2 3 

5.5. Sea level change.2 5 

6. ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES.2 5 

6.1. Species status.2 5 

6.2. Algal blooms.26 

6.3. Coral reef degradation and diseases.2 6 

6.4. Seagrass dieoffs.27 

6.5. Sponge dieoffs.2 8 

6.6. Mangrove dieoffs.2 9 

6.7. Fish dieoffs.31 

6.8. Fish catch changes.31 

6.9. Wading birds.34 

6.10. Fires in the Everglades National Park.3 6 

7. ANTHROPOGENIC CHANGES.38 

7.1. Population changes.38 

7.2. Hydrology and canal construction.4 0 

7.3. Soil subsidence.a.4 1 

7.4. Railroad and Overseas Highway .42 

7.5. Homestead Air Force Base .4 3 

7.6. Everglades Jetport.44 

7.7. Turkey Point Nuclear Power Plant.4 4 

7.8. Agricultural activities.44 

8. LEGISLATION.4 5 

8.1. Federal legislation.4 5 

8.1.1. Federal Clean Water Act.4 5 

8.1.2. Clean Air Act.4 5 

8.1.3. Toxic Substances Control Act.4 5 

8.1.4. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act.4 5 

8.1.5. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act.4 6 

8.1.6. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and 

Liability Act.4 6 




















































8.1.7. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act.4 6 

8.1.8. The Endangered Species Act.4 6 

8.1.9. National Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act.4 6 

8.1.10. Marine Mammal Protection Act.46 

8.1.11. Federal Coastal Zone Management Act.4 7 

8.1.12. Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act.47 

8.1.13. Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act.47 

8.2. State legislation.47 

8.2.1. Bahia Honda State Park.4 7 

8.2.2. Lignumvitae Key State Botanical Park.47 

9. ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMS AND STUDIES.4 7 

9.1. Federal programs.56 

9.1.1. National Park Service.56 

9.1.1.1. Inventorying and Monitoring Program.57 

9.1.1.2. Everglades National Park GIS Program.58 

9.1.2. US Army Corps of Engineers.58 

9.1.2.1. Water Management Decision Support System.58 

9.1.2.2. Hydrographic and Topographic Surveys.58 

9.1.3. Environmental Protection Agency.58 

9.1.3.1. Everglades Mercury Study.58 

9.1.3.2. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program 

- Estuaries.59 

9.1.3.3. Florida Keys Water Quality Protection Program.59 

9.1.3.4. Toxics Release Inventory System.60 

9.1.3.5. Research File 3.60 

9.1.3.6. Waterbody System.60 

9.1.3.7. Permit Compliance System.6 0 

9.1.3.8. North American Landscape Characterization.60 

9.1.3.9. Gulf of Mexico Program.60 

9.1.3.10. STORET.6 0 

9.1.3.11. CERCLIS/RCRIS.6 0 

9.1.3.12. Facility Index System.60 

9.1.3.13. Taxonomic File.61 

9.1.3.14. Gateway/ENVIROFACTS Information Management 

System.6 1 

9.1.3.15. Research and development.61 

9.1.3.16. Spatial Data Clearinghouse.6 1 

9.1.4. US Fish and Wildlife Service.6 1 

9.1.4.1. National Wetlands Inventory.6 1 

9.1.4.2. Wetland Status and Trends.61 

9.1.4.3. Ecological Services.62 

9.1.5. National Biological Survey.62 

9.1.6. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.62 

9.1.6.1. National Ocean Service.6 2 

9.1.6.1.1. Tide gauges.6 2 

9.1.6.1.2. National Status and Trends Program.63 

9.1.6.1.3. National Marine Sanctuaries.65 

9.1.6.2. National Marine Fisheries Service.66 

9.1.6.2.1. Coastal Change Analysis Program.66 

9.1.6.2.2. Fisheries Statistical Data Collection.66 

9.1.6.2.3. AVHRR Coastal Satellite Imagery.66 

9.1.6.2.4. Responses of fish and shellfish to habitat 

changes.67 

9.1.6.2.5. Marine mammals.67 





















































9.1.6.2.6. Seagrass habitat health.67 

9.1.6.2.7. Pink Shrimp.67 

9.1.6.2.8. Pesticide analysis of agricultural nonpoint 

source waters.67 

9.1.6.2.9. Photointerpretation of bottom habitats.68 

9.1.6.3. National Environmental Satellite, Data, and 

Information Service.6 8 

9.1.6.4. National Weather Service.68 

9.1.6.4.1. National Data Buoy Center.68 

9.1.6.4.2. Precipitation.69 

9.1.6.5. Oceans and Atmospheric Research.69 

9.1.6.5.1. Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological 

Laboratory.69 

9.1.6.5.2. Mesoscale Atmospheric Modeling.7 0 

9.1.6.5.3. Regional Numerical Ocean Circulation 

Model.7 0 

9.1.6.5.4. Zooplankton abundance and grazing 

potential.7 0 

9.1.6.5.5. Environmental controls upon algal blooms, 

food web structure and carbon flow.7 0 

9.1.6.5.6. National Undersea Research Program.70 

9.1.6.5.7. National Sea Grant College Program.71 

9.1.7. US Geological Survey.71 

9.1.7.1. Water quantity measurements.71 

9.1.7.1.1. Freshwater discharge - East Coast.71 

9.1.7.1.2. Freshwater discharge to Florida Bay.76 

9.1.7.2. Modeling enhancements.76 

9.1.7.2.1. Model review.76 

9.1.7.2.2. Vegetative resistance to flow.7 6 

9.1.7.2.3. Evapotranspiration measurements and 

modeling.77 

9.1.7.2.4. Elevation data.77 

9.1.7.2.5. Groundwater flow beneath Conservation 

Area 3B levee.7 7 

9.1.7.2.6. Open channel and wetlands flow transport.77 

9.1.7.3. Everglades water quality.77 

9.1.7.3.1. Mercury accumulation and cycling.77 

9.1.7.3.2. Geochemical processes in organic-rich 

surficial sediments.77 

9.1.7.3.3. Terrestrial and freshwater ecosystem 

history.7 8 

9.1.7.4. Florida Bay Water quality.7 8 

9.1.7.4.1. Geophysical mapping of fresh ground 

water.7 8 

9.1.7.4.2. Marine groundwater seepage.78 

9.1.7.4.3. Groundwater flow from the Florida Keys.7 8 

9.1.7.4.4. Florida Bay sedimentation.7 8 

9.1.7.4.5. Remote sensing of turbidity and 

sedimentation.7 8 

9.1.7.4.6. Sedimentation, sea-level rise, and 

circulation.7 9 

9.1.7.4.7. Florida Bay ecosystem history.7 9 

9.1.7.5. Data base development.7 9 

9.2. State of Florida.7 9 











































9.2.1. Florida Department of Environmental Protection.79 

9.2.1.1. Florida Geological Survey.7 9 

9.2.1.2. Bureau of Information Systems Geographic 

Information System Program.7 9 

9.2.1.3. Park Management.80 

9.2.1.4. Federal Facilities.80 

9.2.1.5. Artificial Reef Program.80 

9.2.1.6. Surface Water Quality Data Collection and 

Assessment.8 0 

9.2.1.7. Florida Marine Research Institute.81 

9.2.1.8. Wetlands Regulation Tracking and Assessment.8 1 

9.2.1.9. Living Marine Resources.8 1 

9.2.1.10. Water Quality Monitoring of Western Florida Bay.8 1 

9.2.2. Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission.8 2 

9.2.2.1. Nongame Habitat Protection and Restoration.8 2 

9.2.2.2. Nongame Wildlife Survey and Monitoring.82 

9.2.2.3. Wildlife Research.82 

9.2.3. Florida Coastal Management Program.82 

9.2.4. South Florida Water Management District.82 

9.2.2.1. GIS Database.8 3 

9.2.2.2. Hydrography.83 

9.2.2.3. Public land.83 

9.2.2.4. Demographic data.83 

9.3. Academia.83 

9.4. Local agencies.8 3 

9.4.1. Dade County.8 3 

9.4.2. Monroe County.84 

9.5. Private sector.84 

9.5.1. The Nature Conservancy.84 

9.5.2. The Audubon Society.96 

10. OTHER EVENTS.96 

10.1. Mercury levels in Everglades.96 

10.2. Lead in gasoline ban.:.9 6 

10.3. DDT and other pesticides.96 

10.4. PCBs.9 7 

10.5. Mosquito control.98 

11. DISCUSSION.98 

11.1. Subject distribution of published literature.98 

11.2. Time lines.98 

11.3. Information needs in Florida Bay.101 

12. CONCLUSIONS.101 

13. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.102 

14. REFERENCES.102 

APPENDIX I. Abstracts in chronological sequence of published studies about Florida Bay.1 15 

APPENDIX II. Historical events and studies.379 

APPENDIX III. Graphical presentation of historical events and published studies.395 

APPENDIX IV. References used in Appendices I, II and III.455 

SUBJECT INDEX TO APPENDIX 1.4 97 

AUTHOR INDEX TO APPENDIX 1.505 

















































LIST OF TABLES 


1. Large keys, banks, basins and bays in Florida Bay.5 

2. Endangered and common species in Florida Bay.6 

3. Electronic databases and CD-ROMs searched.9 

4. NOAA Currently available maps and navigation charts covering Florida Bay.10 

5. USGS Currently available maps covering Florida Bay.12 

6. List of aerial overflight data of Everglades National Park/Florida Bay.1 3 

7. Weather stations south of Lake Okeechobee listed at the NOAA National Climatic 

Data Center.1 6 

8. Yearly distribution of tornado outbreaks and outbreak tornadoes, 1950 - 1993 
.1 7 

9. Tropical storms passing over or within a radius of approximately 50 mi of 

Florida Bay from 1910 to 1993 .1 9 

10. Saffir/Simpson hurricane intensity scale.19 

11. El Nino years from 1910 to 1993.22 

12. Volcanic eruptions observed to reach the stratosphere since 1883.24 

13. Number of fires and acres burned by lightning fires, prescribed fires, man- 

caused fires, and all fires by year within the Everglades National Park, 1948 - 
1979.37 

14. Population of Dade, Collier, and Monroe counties from 1900 to 1990 .38 

15. Permits issued by Everglades National Park for work in Florida Bay, 1989 - 

1995..4 8 

16. Everglades National Park Marine Monitoring Network stations.57 

17. Tide station locations in Florida Bay and the Keys from the Tides Automated 

Login and Retrieval System.64 

18. NS&T Mussel Watch Project sampling sites in South Florida and the Florida 

Keys.6 5 

19. C-MAN locations in South Florida.6 9 

20. Florida Sea Grant College Program research and extension activities and 

projects concerning Florida Bay and the Florida Keys, and the greater South 
Florida area, 1972 - 1994.72 


i 






















21. Excerpts of the anecdotal and historical chronology of events that affected the 
marine environment of the Florida Keys from 1714 to the present prepared by 


The Nature Conservancy.8 5 

22. Subject distribution of published citations on Florida Bay included in this 

study.99 




LIST OF FIGURES 


1. Florida Bay.2 

2. Typical keys, shoals and basins of Florida Bay.4 

3. Annual total rainfall for the Florida lower East Coast. Rainfall totals are running 
averages and are plotted at the first month of the 12-month period. Dashed line 

is the average rainfall.1 5 

4. Sunspot cycles and numbers.2 5 

5. Tidal gauge data from Key West plotted as mean annual sea level as a 10-year 

running average.26 

6. Comparison of total commercial and recreational landings for reef and non-reef 

fisheries in Monroe County.3 2 

7. Commercial landings of pink shrimp, combined grouper species, and king 

mackerel in Monroe County.32 

8. Commercial landings of blue crab, stone crab, yellowtail snapper and amberjack 

in Monroe County.33 

9. Population growth of reddish egret in Florida Bay.34 

10. Population growth of great white heron in Florida Bay.3 5 

11. Population growth of roseate spoonbill in Florida Bay.3 5 

12. Numbers of persons in Dade, Collier, and Monroe counties from 1900 to 1990 .39 

13. Sequence of observed subsidence of organic soils in the Florida Everglades after 

initial drainage circa 1912.42 

14. Distribution of citations by subject.100 

15. Distribution of citations on fauna by subject.100 

Jt' 

Appendix III 

111.1. Hurricanes, sunspots and El Nino events.396 

111.2. Volcanoes, sea level rise, and soil subsidence.399 

111.3. Temperature, rainfall, tornadoes.402 

111.4. Fishing trends and population.405 

111.5. Published studies 1910 - 1940.408 

111.6. Published studies 1940 - 1970.410 
























.422 


111.7. Published studies 1970 - present... 

111.8. Anthropogenic and natural events.448 

111.9. Parks, legislature and bans.451 





ACRONYMS AND SYMBOLS 


%o Parts per thousand 

pm Micrometers 

pM Pico molar 


AAF 

AFB 

AOML 

ATC 

BIS GIS 

BP 

C-CAP 

C-MAN 

CAA 

CERCLA 

OGS 

CIE-BBS 

COE 

DDTs 

DERM 

EDC 

EEZ 

EMAP-E 

ENP 

ENSO 

EOSAT 

EPA 

ERL 

EROS 

ESA 

EVER GIS 

FDEP 

FGFWFC 

FGS 

FIFRA 

FINDS 

FIU 

FKNMS 

FMRI 

FNAI 

FWCA 

FWPCA 

FWS 

GERG 

GIS 

GOES 

GPS 

IR 

MMPA 

MMS 

MMS 

NALC 


Army Air Field 
Air Force Base 

Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory/ERL/OAR/NOAA 
Air Transport Command 

Bureau of Information Systems Geographic Information System/Florida 
Before present time 

Coastal Change Analysis Program/NMFS/NOAA 
Coastal-Marine Automated Network/NDBC/NOAA 
Clean Air Act 

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 
Coast and Geodetic Survey 

Coastal Information Exchange Bulletin Board System/Florida 

US Army Corps of Engineers 

Dichlorophenyltrichloroethane and metabolites 

Department of Environmental Resource Management/Dade County 

EROS Data Center 

Exclusive Economic Zone 

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program - Estuaries/EPA 

Everglades National Park/NPS 

El Nino/Southern Oscillation 

Earth Observation Satellite 

Environmental Protection Agency 

Environmental Research Laboratories/OAR/NOAA 

Earth Resources Observation Systems 

Endangered Species Act 

ENP GIS System 

Florida Department of Environmental Protection 
Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission 
Florida Geological Survey 

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act 

Facility Index System/EPA 

Florida International University 

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

Florida Marine Research Institute 

Florida Natural Areas Inventory 

Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act 

Federal Clean Water Act 

US Fish and Wildlife Service 

Geochemical and Environmental Research Group/TAMU 
Global Information System 

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite 

Global Positioning System 

Infrared 

Marine Mammal Protection Act 

Marine Monitoring Network/ENP 

Minerals Management Service 

North American Landscape Characterization/EPA 


v 


NAPP 

NAS 

NASA 

NAWQA 

NBS 

NCDC 

NDBC 

NESDIS 

NGDC 

NHAP 

NMFS 

NOAA 

NO DC 

NOS 

NPS 

NS&T 

NURP 

NWI 

NWS 

OAR 

ONR 

PAH 

PCBs 

PCS 

QA 

RCRA 

REMAP 

RF3 

RSMAS 

SEFSC 

SFWMD 

TAC 

TALARS 

TAMU 

TFW 

TM 

TOC 

TRIS 

TSCA 

UM 

USGS 

WBS 

WILDOBS 


National Aerial Photography Program 

National Audubon Society 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

National Water Quality Assessment Program/USGS 

National Biological Survey 

National Climatic Data Center/NESDIS/NOAA 

National Data Buoy Center/NWS/NOAA 

National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service/NOAA 

National Geophysical Data Center/NESDIS/NOAA 

National High Altitude Photography 

National Marine Fisheries Service/NOAA 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

National Oceanographic Data Center/NESDIS/NOAA 

National Ocean Service/NOAA 

National Park Service 

National Status and Trends Program/NOS/NOAA 

National Undersea Research Program/OAR/NOAA 

National Wetlands Inventory/FWS 

National Weather Service/NOAA 

Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research/NOAA 

Office of Naval Research 

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 

Polychlorinated biphenyls 

Permit Compliance System/EPA 

Quality assurance 

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 
Everglades Mercury Study/EPA 
Research File 3/EPA 

Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science/UM 
Southeast Fisheries Science Center/NMFS/NOAA 
South Florida Water Management District 
Tactical Air Command 

Tides Automated Login and Retrieval System/NOS/NOAA 

Texas A&M University 

Tactical Fighter Wing 

Thematic Mapper 

Total organic carbon 

Toxics Release Inventory System/EPA 

Toxic Substances Control Act 

University of Miami 

United States Geological Survey 

Waterbody System/EPA 

Wildlife Observation Database/FGFWFC 



Natural and Anthropogenic Events Impacting Florida Bay 
1910 - 1994 Time Line 


A. Y. Cantillo, L. Pikula, J. Beattie, A E. Collins, A K. Hale,^ and T. Schmidt,"^ 

NOAA/NOS/ORCA 

Coastal Monitoring and Bioeffects Assessments Division 
Silver Spring, MD 


ABSTRACT 

Florida Bay is a coastal lagoon, on average less than 3 m deep, approximately 1,000 
square miles in area, located between the South Florida mainland and the Florida Keys. 
In recent years, adverse environmental changes have been noted in the Bay. Currently, 
a multi-agency multi-year effort is underway to restore the ecosystem of South 
Florida, including that of Florida Bay. To assist in determining the Bay's former 
condition and to catalogue changes, events that may have affected or have occurred in 
the Bay are described, listed and graphically displayed in a common time scale. The 
time coverage begins in 1910 with construction activities along the Florida Keys, and in 
what later became the Everglades National Park. Included are global scale atmospheric, 
geological and astronomical phenomena such as El Nino events, volcanic eruptions and 
solar activity that may affect local weather. On local scales, documented are: dieoffs 
of species such as seagrasses, sponges and fishes; environmental occurrences of algal 
blooms, coral reef degradation, fishery catch changes and soil subsidence; and human 
activities such as population increases, and construction. Awareness of the 
environmental importance of the Bay is documented in legislation affecting 
environmental regulations nationwide and in the Bay area; and environmental programs 
and studies performed currently and in the past by Federal, state, municipal, academic 
and civic organizations. 


1. INTRODUCTION 

During the past decades, Florida Bay has undergone significant environmental changes. Seagrass 
dieoffs, algal blooms, shifts in biodiversity, fauna and flora population changes, and other 
phenomena are being observed with increasing frequency. In an effort to determine the Bay's 
environmental condition prior to the changes currently observed and to catalogue these 
changes, events that may have affected or have occurred in the Bay and surrounding areas 
have been compiled. Included are global scale atmospheric, geological and astronomical 
phenomena, such as El Nino events, volcanic eruptions and solar activity that may affect local 
weather. On local scales, documented are: dieoffs of species such as seagrasses, sponges and 
fishes; environmental occurrences of algal blooms, coral reef degradation, fishery catch 
changes and soil subsidence; and human activities such as population increases, and 
construction. Awareness of the environmental importance of the Bay is documented in 


NOAA/Miami Regional Library, Miami, FL. 

A NOAA/Central Regional Library, Silver Spring, MD. 

^ Rosensliel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL. 
^ Everglades National Park Research Center, 40001 State Rd 9336, Homestead, FL. 


1 




Matecu noe 


Long Key 


Islamorada 


80° 40' W 


Barnes 

Sound 


Key largi 


Tavernier 


East Cape 


25° O' N 


Florida Bay 


Shown in detail in Figure 2 


Figure 1. Florida Bay. 


legislation affecting environmental regulations nationwide and in the Bay area; and 
environmental programs and studies performed currently and in the past by Federal, state, 
municipal, academic and civic organizations. 


2. DESCRIPTION OF FLORIDA BAY ECOSYSTEM 

Florida Bay is a coastal lagoon, on average less than 3 m deep, approximately 1,000 square 
miles in area, located between the South Florida mainland and the Florida Keys (Figure 1). 
Approximately 80% of the Bay is protected as part of the Everglades National Park (ENP), and 
the rest is under the protection of the National Oceanic and Atmopsheric Administration (NOAA) 
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Whitewater Bay, located between the Everglades 
mainland and Cape Sable, is connected to Florida Bay by the Buttonwood Canal. The Bay is open 
to the Gulf of Mexico in the southwest. During most years, Florida Bay is a negative estuary 
where evaporation exceeds freshwater input resulting in a hypersaline (>35°/oo) environment. 
Such conditions were observed for 12 of the 17 yrs of recorded data since 1956 examined by 
Robblee et al. (1989). Salinities greater than 50 °/oo have been routinely measured, and 
maximum levels of approximately 70 %o have been observed. Highest salinities occur in the 
central basins, usually during late spring, and lowest salinity conditions occur in the northeast 


2 





















region, usually during late summer. Seasonal variations of salinity appear to be related to the 
rainfall conditions in South Florida, where highest rainfall occurs during the summer and early 
fall. Freshwater drainage into the Bay is limited to runoff from Taylor Slough, from the coastal 
wetlands south of Shark River Slough, and seepage of groundwater from the mainland (Schomer 
and Drew, 1982). 

Florida Bay opens to the Gulf of Mexico in the southwest. Open water effects on the Bay, 
however, are dampened by interconnecting mudbanks which cordon the Bay into a series of 
internal basins or ’lakes'' (Merriam, 1989) (Figure 2). Major morphological changes in the Bay 
occur during major storms such as hurricanes. The intense runoff and increased rainfall that 
accompanies these storms appear to be very significant in maintaining the Florida Bay 
ecosystem (Meeder and Meeder, 1989; Craighead and Gilbert, 1962; and others). Storms that 
affect the Bay bottom and coastline occur about once every 3 - 5 yrs, and those that produce 
extreme freshwater runoff occur once every 6 - 7 yrs. 

There are 237 muddy islands with areas smaller than 100 m 2 unevenly distributed in Florida 
Bay (Enos, 1989). Most of these islands are connected by narrow mudbanks (Merriam and 
Quinn, 1989). They are most common in the central region of the Bay. In general, these islands 
are larger in the northeast region adjacent to the mainland than in the rest of the Bay, and the 
mudbanks are thicker and wider in the western part adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico. These 
islands are composed of soft carbonate mud accumulated over the Miami Limestone 
(Pleistocene) bedrock during the sea level rise through the past 5,000 yrs. Florida Bay is a 
source of biogenic carbonate sediments (Merriam, 1989; Bosence, 1989; and others). The 
principal habitats of the small islands are associated with red and black mangrove swamps, 
algal and halophyte marshes, grass ’prairies', and hardwood-buttonwood hammocks (Enos, 
1989). The islands are dynamic and the habitats are subject to sudden catastrophic alterations. 
The islands also migrate through erosion on exposed margins and lateral accretion on sheltered 
margins. Geological stratigraphy of the islands as determined by cores showed no obvious 
relationship to habitat. The largest keys in Florida Bay are listed in Table 1. 

The bottom of the Bay is dominated by seagrasses, especially Thalassia testudinum (turtle 
grass). There is a gradient in seagrass communities from the enclosed northeast region of the 
Bay to the open western regions (Fourqurean, 1992). The northeast region is dominated by 
sparse T. testudinum with denser cover on localized areas of increased sediment accumulation. 
The seagrass communities in this region are nutrient limited (Powell et al., 1989a; Lapointe, 
1989; and others). Seagrass cover increases towards the west where T. testudinum is 
intermixed with Halodule wrightii (shoalgrass) and Syringodium filiforme (manatee grass). 
Large bird colonies in some of the mangrove islands in the northeast Bay increase nutrient 
availability and therefore seagrass density in the vicinity of the colonies. Since 1987, a major 
die-off of seagrass and benthic macrophytes has been observed in Florida Bay (Zieman et al., 
1988). Anomalies in the recent climate record, including excessively warm waters during the 
summer and fall of 1986 - 1988 and 1990, and a reduction of tropical storm frequency, may 
have contributed to the die-off. Recent reports of seagrass die-offs on the Atlantic Ocean side 
of the Florida Keys between Long and Grassy Key have been reported in the media. 

The Florida Bay ecosystem supports a variety of species, some of which are threatened or 
endangered. Endangered and common species are listed in Table 2. 


3 



| Keys or mainland One to two feet in depth Q] Six feet or deeper 

W Shoals and banks Q] Three to six feet in depth 


Figure 2. Typical keys, shoals and basins of Florida Bay. 


4 



















Table 1. Large keys, banks, basins and bays in Florida Bay. 


KEYS 

Barnes Keys 
Big Key 

Black Betsy Keys 
Bob Allen Keys 
Bob Keys 
Boggy Key 
Bottle Key 
Brandely Key 
Brush Keys 
Buchanan Keys 
Buoy Key 
Butternut Key 
Buttonwood Keys 
Calusa Key 
Camp Key 
Captain Key 
Carinne Key 
Carl Ross Key 
Catfish Key 
Clive Key 
Club Keys 

BANKS 

Arsenic Bank 
Bamboo Banks 
Bethel Bank 
Blue Bank 
Bullard Bank 
Channel Key Banks 
Dave Foy Bank 
Dildo Key Bank 

BASINS AND BAYS 

Alligator Bay 
Blackwater Sound 
Buttonwood Sound 
Cotton Key Basin 
Cowpens Anchorage 
Davis Cove 


Cluett Key 
Cocoanut Key 
Coon Key 
Cormorant Key 
Cotton Key 
Crane Key 
Curlow Key 
Curry Key 
Dead Terrapin Key 
Deer Key 
Derelict 
Duck Key 
Dunop Keys 
Eagle Key 

East Bahia Honda Key 
East Key 
End Key 
Frank Key 
Gopher Keys 
Green Mangrove Key 
Hardup Key 


First National Bank 
Grassy Key Bank 
Horseshoe Bank 
Jewfish Bush Banks 
John Sawyer Bank 
Lignumvitae Key Bank 
Ninemile Bank 
Old Dan Bank 


Garfield Bight 
Joe Bay 

Little Blackwater 
Sound 

Little Buttonwood 
Sound 


Jim Foot Key 
Joe Kemp Key 
Johnson Key 
Lake Key 
Low Key 

Lower Arsenicker 
Key 

Man of War Key 
Manatee Keys 
Mangrove Key 
Murray Key 
Nest Keys 
Otter Key 
Oyster Key 
Palm Key 
Panhandle Keys 
Park Key 
Pass Key 
Pelican Keys 
Peterson Keys 
Pigeon Key 


Old Sweat Bank 
Oxfoot Bank 
Peterson Key Bank 
Pontoon Bank 
Rabbit Key Basin 
Rachel Bank 
Ramshorn Shoal 
Red Bay Bank 


Little Madeira Bay 
Long Sound 
Madeira Bay 
Matecumbe Bight 
Rankin Bight 
Santini Bight 


Pollock Keys 

Porjue Key 

Rankin Key 

Roscoe Key 

Russell Key 

Samphire Keys 

Sandy Key 

Shell Key 

Sid Key 

Spy Key 

Stake Key 

Swash Keys 

Tern Key 

Topsy Key 

Triplet Keys 

Twin Keys 

Umbrella Key 

Upper Arsenicker Key 

West Key 

Whaleback Key 

Whipray Keys 


Schooner Bank 
Sprigger Bank 
Tripod Bank 
Twin Key Bank 
Upper Cross Bank 
Whipray Basin 


)} 

Snake Night 
Sunset Cove 
Tarpon Basin 
Terrapin Bay 
Trout Cove 


5 




Table 2. Endangered and common species in Florida Bay [List not comprehensive and compiled from various 
sources including Schmidt (1979). Fish names were checked against Robins et al. (1991).] 


FLORA 

Macroalgae 

Batophora oerstedii 
Acetabularia crenulata 

Seagrasses 

Thalassia testudinum 
Halodule wrightii 
Syringodium filiforme 

Mangroves 

Rhizophora mangle 
Laguncularia racemosa 
Avicennia germinans 

FAUNA 

Sponges 

Hippiospongia lachne 
Spongia barbara 
Spongia graminea 

Crustacea 

Penaeus duora rum 
Penaeus aztecus 
Penaeus setiferus 
Panulirus argus 
Menippe mercenaria 

Other invertebrates 

Astraea americana 
Astraea phoebia 
Cerithium atraturn 
Cerithium literatum 
Columbella mercatoria 
Fasciolana tulipa 
Leucozonia nassa 
Marginalia eburneola 
Marginalia guttata 
Modulus modulus 
Montastraea annularis 
Solenastrea boumoni 
Tegula fasciata 
Thais deltoidea 
Turbo canaliculatus 

Fish 

Achirus lineatus 
Aetobatis narinari 
Ahlia egmontis 
Albula vulpes 
Aluterus schoepfi 
Anchoa cubana 
Anchoa hepsetus 


Turtle grass 
Shoalgrass 
Manatee grass 


Red mangrove 
White mangrove 
Black mangrove 


Sheepswool sponge 
Yellow sponge 
Grass sponge 


Pink shrimp 
Brown shrimp 
White shrimp 
Spiny lobsters 
Stone crab 


American star shell 
Longspined star shell 

Lettered horn shell 
Mottled dove shell 
Tulip shell 
Chesnut latirus 


Atlantic modulus 


Colorful top shell 
Deltoid rock shell 
Channeled turban 


Lined sole 
Spotted eagle ray 
Key worm eel 
Bonefish 
Orange filefish 
Cuban anchovy 
Striped anchovy 


Anchoa mitchilli 
Anisotremus virginicus 
Archosargus probato- 
cephalus 
Archosargus 
rhomboidalis 
Arius felis 
Bag re marinus 
Bairdi ell a batabana 
Bairdiella chrysoura 
Balistes vetula 
Bascanichthys scuticaris 
Bathygobius soporator 
Bothus ocellatus 

Brevoortia smithi 

* 

Bryx dunckeri 
Calamus arctifrons 
Caranx crysos 
Caranx hippos 
Caranx ruber 
Carcharhinus limbatus 
Centropomus undecimalis 
Centropristis striata 
Chaetodipterus faber 
Chasmodes saburrae 
Chilomycterus antillarum 
Chilomycterus schoepfi 
Chloroscombrus chrysurus 
Chriodorus atherinoides 
Cosmocampus albirostris 
Cyno scion nebulosus 
Cyprinodontvariegatus 
Dasyatis americana 
Diapterus plumieri' 
Diplectrum formosum 
Diplogrammus 
pauciradiatus A 
Echeneis neucratoides 
Elops saums 
Epinephelus itajara 
Epinephelus morio 
Epinephelus striatus 
Equetus acuminatus 
Etropus crossotus 
Eucinostomus argenteus 
Eucinostomus harengulus 
Eucinostromus argenteus 
Eucinostromus gut a 
Floridichthys carpio 
FFundulus confluentus 
Fundulus grandis 
Fundulus similis 
Fundulus chrysotus 
Gerres cine reus 
Gobiesox strumosus 
Gobionellus smaragdus 


Bay anchovy 

Porkfish 

Sheepshead 

Sea bream 

Sea catfish 
Gafftopsail catfish 
Blue croaker 
Silver perch 
Queen triggerfish 
Whip eel 
Frillfin goby 
Eyed flounder 
Yellowfin menhaden 
Pugnose pipefish 
Grass porgy 
Blue runner 
Crevalle jack 
Bar jack 
Blacktip shark 
Snook 

Black seabass 
Atlantic spadefish 
Florida blenny 
Webbed burrfish 
Striped burrfish 
Atlantic bumper 
Hardhead halfbeak 
Whitenose pipefish 
Spotted seatrout 
Sheepshead minnow 
Southern stingray 
Striped mojarra 
Sand perch 
Spotted dragonet 

Whitefin sharksucker 
Ladyfish 
Jewfish 
Red grouper 
Nassau grouper 
High hat 
Fringed flounder 
Spotfin mojarra 
Tidewater mojarra 
Spotfin mojarra 
Silver jenny 
Goldspotted killifish 
Marsh killifish 
Gulf killifish 
Longnose killifish 
Golden topminnow 
Yellowfin mojarra 
Skilletfish 
Emerald goby 


Formerly Syngnathus. 


Formerly Callionymus. 


6 




Table 2. Endangered and common species in Florida Bay. (cont.) 


Gobiosoma robustum 
Haemulon aurolineatum 
Haemulon plumieri 
Haemulon sciurus 
Harengula juguana 
Hippocampus erectus 
Hippocampus zosterae 
Hypoplectrus pyella 
Hyporhamphus 
unifasciatus 
Lachnolaimus maxi mu s 
Lactophrys quadricomis 
Lactophrys trigonus 
Lagodon rhomboides 
Lobotes surinamensis 
Lucania parva 
Lutjanus analis 
Lutjanus apodus 
Lutjanus griseus 
Lutjanus synagris 
Megalops atlanticus 
Megalops cyprinoides 
Membras martinica 
Menidia berylinna 
Menticirrhus americanus 
Menticirrhus littoralis 
Microgobius gulosus 
Micropogoniasundulatus 
Monacanthus ciliatus 
Monacanthus hispidus 
Mugil cep ha I us 
Mugil curema 
Mugil trichodon 
Mycteroperca microlepis 
Myrophis punctatus 
Negaprion brevirostris 
Nicholsina usta 
Ogcocephalus radiatus 
Oligoplites saurus 
Ophichthus gomesi 
Opisthonema oglinum 
Opsanus beta 
Orthopristis chrysoptera 
Paraclinus marmoratus 
Paralichthys albigutta 
Poecilia lad pinna 
Pogonias cromis 
Pomatomus saltatrix 
Prionotus scitulus 
Prionotus tribulus 
Pristis pectinata 
Rachycentron canadum 
Sciaenops ocellatus 
Scomberomorus cavalla 
Scomberomorus 
macula tus 
Selene vomer 
Sparisoma chrysopterum 
Spa risoma viride 


Code goby 
Tomtate 
White grunt 
Bluestriped grunt 
Scaled sardine 
Lined seahorse 
Dwarf seahorse 
Barred hamlet 
Silverstripe halfbeak 

Hogfish 

Scrawled cowfish 

Trunkfish 

Pinfish 

Tripletail 

Rainwater killifish 

Mutton snapper 

Schoolmaster 

Gray snapper 

Lane snapper 

Tarpon 

Ox-eye 

Rough silverside 
Tidewater silverside 
Southern kingfish 
Gulf kingfish 
Clown goby 
Atlantic croaker 
Fringed filefish 
Planehead filefish 
Striped mullet 
White mullet 
Fantail mullet 
Gag grouper 
Speckled worm eel 
Lemon shark 
Emerald parrotfish 
Polka-dot batfish 
Leatherjacker 
Shrimp eel 

Atlantic threadherring 
Gulf toadfish 
Pigfish 

Marbled blenny 
Gulf flounder 
Sailfin molly 
Black drum 
Bluefish 

Leopard sea robin 
Bighead searobin 
Smalltooth sawfish 
Cobia 
Red drum 
King mackerel 
Spanish mackerel 

Lookdown 
Redtail parrotfish 
Spotlight parrotfish 


Spheorides nephelus 
Spheorides spengleri 
Sphoeroides nephelus 
Sphyraena barracuda 
Sphyrna tiburo 
Strongylura timucu 
Strongylura marina 
Strongylura notata 
Symphurus plagiusa 
Syngnathus floridae 
Syngnathus louisianae 
Syngnathus scovelli 
Synodus foetens 
Trachinotus carolinus 
Trachinotus falcatus 
Trinectes maculatus 
Tylosurus crocidilus 

Birds 

Ajaja ajaja 
Anhinga anhinga 
Ardea herodias 
Bubulcus ibis 
Butorides striatus 
Casmerodius albus 
Columba leucocephala 0 
Egretta alba 
Egretta caerulea 
Egretta rufescens 
Egretta thula 
Egretta tricolor 
Eudocimus albus 
Ixobrychus exilis 
Mycteria americana 
Nycticorax nycticorax 

Nycticorax violaceous 

Pandion haliaetus 
Pelicanus occidentalis 
Phalacrocorax auritus 


Reptiles 

Dermochelys coriacea 
Caretta caretta" 

Cheloma my das' 
Eretomochelys imbricata * 
Lepidochelys kempii * 
Crocodylus acutus ' 

Mammals 

Pseudorca crassidens 
Trichechus manatus * 
Tursiops truncatus 


* Endangered species. ** Threatened species. 0 Status under review. 


Southern puffer 
Bandtail puffer 
Southern puffer 
Great barracuda 
Bonnethead shark 
Timucu 

Atlantic needlefish 
Redfin needlefish 
Blackcheek tonguefish 
Dusky pipefish 
Chain pipefish 
Gulf pipefish 
Inshore lizardfish 
Florida pompano 
Permit 
Hogchoker 
Houndfish 


Roseate spoonbill 

Great blue/white heron 
Cattle egret 
Green backer heron 
Great egret 
White-crowned pigeon 
Great egret 
Little blue heron 
Reddish egret 
Snowy egret 
Tricolored heron 
White ibis 
Least bittern 
Wood stork 
Black crowned night 
heron 

Yellow crowned night 

heron 

Osprey 

Brown pelican 

Double crested 

cormorant 


Leatherback turtle 
Loggerhead turtle 
Green turtle 
Hawksbill turtle 
Ridley turtle 
American crocodile 


False killer whale 
Manatee 

Bottlenose dolphin 


7 




The environment of South Florida has undergone changes since the early part of the century. A 
typical account of the environment at that time is the one of Simpson (1920). 

■From 1882 till 1886 I made my home on the southwest coast of the State and have 

lived near Miami since 1902. When I first came to the State, the greater part of Lower 

Florida was an unbroken wilderness, and during the time I have been here I have quite 
thoroughly explored the territory described in this volume both as a collector and 
general naturalist. To-day most of its hammocks are destroyed, the streams are being 
dredged out and deepened, the Everglades are nearly drained; even the pine forests are 
being cut down. At the time when I first resided in the State, flamingoes, roseate 
spoonbills, scarlet ibises, and the beautiful plumed herons were abundant. Deer and 
otter could be seen at any time and the west coast waters were alive with immense 
schools of mullet and other fish, while manatee were not rare. The streams and 
swamps were full of alligators; in fact the wonderful wild fauna of our region filled the 
land and the waters everywhere. It has seemed to me fitting that some record of this 
life should be made, in view of the fact that it is so rapidly disappearing - and forever. 

Already a number of pscies of our animals and plants are exterminated from this the 

only area in the United States in which they have ever been found." 

3. INFORMATION GATHERING METHODS 

This document has been compiled using various sources and methods. Searches of electronic 
databases were performed to obtain listings of published citations concerning Florida Bay (Table 
3). The results of the electronic databases were cross checked against the bibliographies 
prepared by Tabb and Iversen (1971), Schmidt and Davis (1978), Mahadevan et at. (1984), and 
Schmidt (1991). The references listed in citations on Florida Bay were also cross referenced to 
the current compilation. In addition, information on specific subject areas, such as El Nino 

events and weather, was obtained from books, journal articles and other published sources 

without extensive subject coverage. Problems were encountered concerning the indexing used 
for Florida Bay. If the words "Florida Bay" were not used in the title, key words or text, 

searching of the databases resulted in a large number of citations on bays in Florida. The 

Boolean combination of "Everglades" and "coastal" or "marine" did not yield many citations. 
Also, there is a lag time of several months between publication and entry into electronic 
databases for some services. 

Selected citations on Taylor Slough, Shark River Slough, Buttonwood Canal, Whitewater Bay 
and the Florida Keys are included since these ecosystems are closely related to Florida Bay. 
This work, however, is not intended to have a comprehensive coverage of these areas. 

An anecdotal and historical chronology of events that affected the marine environment of the 
Florida Keys from 1714 to the present was prepared by The Nature Conservancy (DeMaria, in 
press). This time line contains information gathered from recent interviews of approximately 
75 individuals with 10 or more years of on-the-water experience in the Keys and Florida Bay. 
Selected information from this work on Florida Bay was incorporated in this time line. 


8 


Table 3. Electronic databases and CD-ROMs searched. 


CD ROMs 


Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts (CD-ROM), 1978 - 1993 (Searched 1/94). 
Water Resources Abstracts (CD-ROM). 

DATABASES 

[Search done 3/28/94. Search strategy: FLORIDA(W)BAY and EVERGLADES(W)COASTAL.] 


BIOSIS PREVIEWS (R) 

Dissertation Abstracts Online 

GeoArchive 

GeoRef 

Enviroline (R) 

Env. Bib. 


1969- 1994/Mar. 
1861-1994/Apr. 
1974-1994/Feb. 
1785-1994/Apr. 

1970- 1994/Feb. 
1974-1993/Oct. 


4. NAVIGATION AND CARTOGRAPHY 

An early account of exploration in Florida Bay gives a good description of the navigation 
difficulties encountered in the area (Simpson, 1920). 

‘The waters of the key region are exceedingly shallow, the bottom either being 
composed of ragged rock or very soft, almost fathomless mud. Navigation chiefly 
consists of getting aground and getting afloat again. One never makes an extended 
cruise among the keys without getting 'piled up' as it is called, often several times a 
day, and strangely enough, this generally seems to occur when the tide is falling. If the 
boat gets on the rock bottom one is fortunate it is not seriously injured; if it gets fast 
in the mud there is pretty sure to be an amazing amount of trouble getting afloat. In the 
former case, everybody must get overboard and try to lift the boat out of the grip of 
the ragged rock. If the vessel is fast in the mud poles will do little good as they can 
usually be pushed to full length into the soft marl. The engine is reversed, all must get 
out, sometimes sinking in to the waist, and lift until they can see stars." 

4.1. Charts and maps 

A historical account of geographical and ecological knowledge of the Gulf of Mexico and South 
Florida, including a description of navigation charts produced since the 18th Century, can be 
found in Galstoff (1954). 

4.1.1. NOAA charts 

The NOAA charts covering Florida Bay currently available from NOAA are listed in Table 4. The 
marine Weather Services charts, published by NOAA/National Weather Service (NWS), list 
NWS radio stations and commercial radio stations that broadcast marine weather information. 
The Marine Boundary Charts portray the 3 n mi line and the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone 
(12-mi limit) and/or Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (200-mi limit) boundaries in US waters. 


9 




Table 4. Currently available NOAA maps and navigation charts covering Florida Bay. 


Chart number Title 

Best coverage of Florida Bay 

1 1450 Fowey Rocks to American Shoal (includes Loran*C lines of 
position) 

11451 Miami to Marathon and Florida Bay (folio, small craft chart) 

1 1452 Alligator Reef to Sombrero Key (includes Loran-C lines of position) 

Partial coverage of Florida Bay 

11013 Straits of Florida and Approaches 1: 

1 1420 Havana to Tampa Bay 

1 1431 East Cape to Mormon Key (includes Loran-C lines of position) 

1 1433 Everglades National Park - Whitewater Bay (pocket fold, small 
craft chart) 

1 1434 Florida Keys - Sombrero Key to Dry Tortugas (includes Loran-C 
lines of position) 

11441 Key West Harbor and approaches 

1 1442 Sombrero Key to Sand Key (includes Loran-C lines of position) 

1 1445 Intercoastal Waterway - Bahia Honda to Key West 
1 1447 Key West Harbor 

1 1448 Intercoastal Waterway - Big Spanish Ch. to Johnson Key 
1 1 449 Matecumbe to Bahia Honda 
1 1 460 Cape Canaveral to Key West 
1 1462 Fowey Rocks to Alligator Reef 
1 1463 Intercoastal Waterway - Elliot Key to Matecumbe 

Bathymetric maps (OCS) 

NG 17-8 Miami 
NG 17-11 Key West 
NG 17-10 Dry Tortugas 

Marine Boundary charts 

11431, 1 1442, 1 1439, 1 1434, 1 1452, 1 1462, 1 1439, 1 1442 

Offshore mineral leasing maps 

1 1 1 3-A Not available 

Marine Weather Service charts 


Scale 


1:1 80,000 

1 : 80,000 
1:80,000 


1 , 200,000 
1:470,940 
1 : 80,000 
1:50,000 

1:180,000 

1:30,000 
1:80,000 
1:40,000 
1 : 10,000 
1:40,000 
1:40,000 
1:466,940 
1:80,000 
1:40,000 


1:250,000 


1:470,940 


MSC-5 Savannah, GA, to Apalachicola Bay, FL 




4.1.2. USGS maps 


The US Geological Survey (USGS) National Mapping Program publishes a variety of multipurpose 
maps to serve all map users. In addition to published maps, basic map data and open-file map 
byproducts are available (Table 5). These include aerial photographs, satellite images, advance 
and reproducible map materials, geodetic control data, geographic-names data, status maps, 
microfilm map copies, and map data in digital form. Listings of these maps are available for 
each state. 

4.2. Coast Pilot 

The Coast Pilot books cover navigation regulations, outstanding landmarks, channel and 
anchorages, peculiarities, dangers, weather, routes, pilotages and port facilities. Coast Pilot 
no. 4 covers Cape Henry to Key West and No. 5 the Gulf of Mexico, Puerto Rico and the Virgin 
Islands. These publications are updated annually. 

The 1897 and 1901 coast pilot guides, published by the Coast and Geodetic Survey (CGS) (1897 
and 1901), have the following description of Florida Bay: 

‘Florida Bay is the large, shallow body of water lying between the south coast of the 
mainland of Florida and the Florida Keys, and extending, in E. and W. direction, from 
Cape Sable to Barnes Sound. The eastern and greater part of this bay is full of ridges 
and reefs which show bare, or nearly bare, and there are also a large number of small 
wooded keys: this part is only navigable for small flat-bottomed craft. The western 
part is comparatively clear, the depth of water ranging from 7 to 13 feet, and vessels 
of 7 feet draft, bound to the Gulf of Mexico from the Hawk Channel, can enter the Bay 
of Florida through Moser Channel instead of passing through Key West Harbor, and thus 
shorten the distances to Cape Romano and Cape Sable by about 45 to 70 miles 
respectively: but the passage through Moser Channel requires some local knowledge, as 
there are no aids to assist a stranger. The bay is only frequented by spongers, and the 
inhabitants of the keys, who generally use flat-bottomed craft of 3 to 4 feet draft. 
There are no towns or villages on the shores of the bay.‘ 

The 1908 edition of the guide added the following information (Coast and Geodetic Survey, 
1908). 

"The bay is only frequented by yachts, spongers, fishermen, and the inhabitants of the 
keys, who generally use flat-bottomed craft of 3 to 4 feet draft. The post village of 
Flamingo is on the shore of the bay, about 7 miles east of East Cape." 

The 1916 edition of the coast pilot guide contained descriptions of the Bay bottom and water 
characteristics. 

"The depths are shallow and irregular, and the bottom is mostly coral, with a thin 
covering of silt in the eastern part. From April to October the waters of the bay are 
clear and the shoals plainly discernible, but during the winter months the water is 
milky and the shoals indistinguishable. 

"The western part of the bay is comparatively clear, with depths ranging from 7 to 13 
feet, and the bottom is covered with loggerhead sponges and small coral heads." 

The coast pilot editions also contain descriptions of the status of navigational aids such as light 
houses and beacons, bridges, the strength and behavior of tide flow through the channels 


Table 5. USGS Currently available maps covering Florida Bay (listed west to east, north to 
south when applicable). 


Sectional map series 

(1:2,000,000) 

Seven Mile Bridge 

Marathon 

Crawl Key 

12-13, Florida 

County map series 

Primary map series 

(7.5 minute, 1:24,000) 

Dade County 

Monroe County 

Lake Ingraham West 

Lake Ingraham East 

Flamingo 

West Lake 

Madeira Bay 

Joe Bay 

Blackwater Sound 

Sandy Key 

Clive Key 

Pelican Keys 

Calusa Keys 

T avernier 

Rock Harbor 

East Bahia Honda Key NE 

Schooner Bank 

Buchanan Keys 

Upper Matecumbe Key 

Plantation Key 

East Bahia Honda Key 

Bamboo key 

Grassy Key 

Long key 

Lower Matecumbe Key 

30 x 60 Minute series 

(1:100,000 scale) 

25801-A1 Cape Sable 

25080-A1 Homestead 

24801-El Key West 

24080-El Islamorada 

1x2 Degree series 

(1:250,000 scale) 

25080-A1, Miami 

24080-A2, Key West 

National park and monument maps 

Everglades National Park 

7.5-minute geological survey maps 




Table 6. List of aerial overflight data of Everglades National Park/Florida Bay [Data stored at 
the Everglades Research Center Library], 


Date of flight 

Scale 

Area flown 

Film type 

5/3-7/40 

1:40,000 

Everglades National Park area 

Black and white 

1 1/28/53 

1:20,000 

Northwest Florida Bay and east Cape 
Sable 

Black and white 

4/26-6/1/64 

Unknown 

Florida Bay 

Unknown 

1/27/7 1 

Unknown 

Everglades National Park including 
extreme southeast Florida Bay 

Unknown 

1 / 7 3 

Unknown 

Florida Bay 

Color IR, high altitude U2 

1 2/78 

1:7800- 
10,000 

Flamingo and Florida Bay mangroves 

CIR 

87 

Unknown 

Florida Bay (exotics) 

Color 

90 

Unknown 

Florida Bay? 

Unknown 

92 

Unknown 

Florida Bay and Ten Thousand Islands 

Color. Post Andrew. 


between the Keys, passages through Florida Bay as a short cut to Cape Sable, and places that 
could afford shelter during severe weather. 

4.3. Aerial photography and remote sensing 

There have been many aerial overflights of Florida Bay and the Everglades National Park 
including some shortly before and after World War II. The data recorded during many of these 
flights has not been processed and the film is stored at Everglades National Park Headquarters. 
A partial list of overflight compiled from various sources is in Table 6. There are other 
sources of remote sensing data on the Bay not listed in Table 6 including overflight data stored 
at the Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS) Data Center (EDC). Landsat 4/5 
Multispectral Scanner (MSS) data are available from the Earth Observation Satellite (EOSAT) 
Company under contract agreement to the Government. As of 1990, EOSAT and NOAA reached 
an agreement that allowed MSS data older than two years to be sold at the EROS Data Center 
for the cost of reproduction and distribution. Landsat MSS data are archived at EDC as part of 
the National Satellite Land Remote Sensing Data Archive. 

In 1978, several Federal agencies agreed to coordinate their aerial photo acquisition activities. 
Thus from 1980 through 1986, the Federal Government conducted the National High Altitude 
Photography (NHAP) Program designed to obtain complete, uniform coverage of the 48 
conterminous states over a 5-yr cycle. As part of the NHAP Program, black-and-white and 
color-infrared aerial photographs were obtained from an altitude of 40,000 ft on 9-in film. The 
color-infrared photographs, at a scale of 1:58,000, and the black-and-white photographs at a 
scale of 1:80,000, were centered over the USGS 7.5-min quadrangles. Strict specifications 
regarding sun angle, cloud cover, minimal haze, stereoscopic coverage, and image inspection 
were followed. In 1986, the NHAP was renamed the National Aerial Photography Program 
(NAPP) and specifications were changed to obtain color-infrared photographs only. NAPP 
photographs are obtained from an altitude of 20,000 ft on 9-in film with a resulting scale of 


EROS Data Center, Customer Services, Sioux Falls, SD 57198. 605 594 6151. 





1:40,000. These photographs are centered on quarters of 7.5-min quadrangles. Information 
about these photographs can be obtained from EDC. 

5. ATMOSPHERIC, GEOLOGICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA 

5.1. South Florida climate 

South Florida has a tropical climate, with a summer wet season and a dry season from mid fall 
through late spring (Duever et al., 1994). Average temperatures are warm all year, but 
occasional freezes, associated with winter cold fronts, occur during the winter months. 
Thunderstorms are the major source of rainfall. During some years, tropical storms and 
hurricanes, and cold fronts can contribute significantly to the rainfall. Besides the annual cycle 
rainfall patterns are associated with a minor bimodal peak during the wet season and a 5- to 
6*yr cycle associated with global climate cycles. The long-term trend in total annual 
precipitation has been essentially constant over the past 100 yrs. Evapotranspiration is lowest 
during the cool winter months and highest in late spring, after which it declines only slightly 
during the summer months. Freezes play a large role in controlling the distribution of tropical 
elements of the fauna and flora of south Florida. In general, they are more severe farther north 
or inland from the ocean. There is no clear evidence of any change in frequency or severity of 
freezes over the last 40 yrs. Droughts can significantly alter composition and structure of 
aquatic animal communities, provide opportunities for germination of wetland vegetation, and 
set the stage for fire. Individual droughts may affect all of south Florida, but they are 
frequently restricted only to portions of it. 

The most severe drought on record in Florida as of 1961 occurred during the 3-yr period of 
1954 - 1956 (Pride and Crooks, 1962). The drought was caused by rainfall deficiencies in 
amounts ranging from 7 - 11 in during each of the three years. Minimum stream flows recorded 
at 135 continuous record stations, low-flow measurements at 190 partial record stations, and 
chemical analyses of water at 133 sites are summarized in Pride and Crooks (1962). Records 
of streamflow at 13 representative streams and records of stage for 17 representative lakes 
were compared with average flows or stages. The dissolved solids concentrations in most 
streams increased as flows declined. Less severe draughts occurred in 1916, 1920, 1926, 
1930, 1938, 1942, and 1949-1951. Annual total rainfall for the Florida lower East Coast is 
shown in Figure 3. 

Severe freezes have occurred in Florida in February 1917, January 1928, December 1934, 
January 1940, February 1947, the winter of 1957-58, December 1962, November 1970, 
January 1971, January 1977, January 1981, January 1982, December 1983, and January 
1985 (Myers, 1986). Especially cold winters were those of 1941-1942, 1957-1958, 1963- 
1964, 1969-1970, and 1989. The most severe were those of 1957-1958, 1969-1970, and 
1989. During these severe periods, the growth pattern of a Montastrea annularis specimen 
were interrupted (Emiliani et al., 1978). 

Weather may influence the bioaccumulation of chemicals as changes in temperature and salinity 
affect biochemical processes. Rainfall is one of the most important ways of mobilizing 
contaminants in soil and urban areas and may affect the amounts of contaminants that reach 
coastal and estuarine environments. The effect of global climate changes in tropical marine 
systems, such as mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs, is being examined by several 
workers (e.g., Zieman et al., 1989; Cubit, 1992; Davis, 1992; Zieman et al., 1992; Twilley 
and Chen, 1994; Cubit, 1994; Davis et al., 1994; Winter et al., 1994; Zieman et al., 1994; 
and others). Seasonal variations in temperature and salinity influence abundance, productivity, 
and reproduction of macroalgae and seagrass in south Florida (Tabb et al., 1962; Josselyn, 
1977; Bach, 1979; Morrison, 1981; Zieman, 1988; Montague and Ley, 1993; and others). 



Figure 3. Annual total rainfall for the Florida lower East Coast. Rainfall totals are running 
averages and are plotted at the first month of the 12-month period. Dashed line is the average 
rainfall [Redrawn from Hanson and Maul (1991)]. 


5.1.1. Weather stations 

Three NOAA weather stations, located at airports, bracket Florida Bay: Miami, Key West, and 
Ft. Myers. These stations, however, are not good indicators of weather conditions in the Bay. 
Other weather stations in the area are located at Homestead Air Force Base, the Everglades 
National Park Research Center, Flamingo, and at other sites. The station identification, name, 
location and length of operation of the weather stations reporting data to the NOAA National 
Climatic Data Center* located south of Lake Okeechobee are listed in Table 7. 

5.1.2. Tornadoes 

Tornadoes are part of South Florida weather. Although they are not long lived, their effects on 
land or water can be severe. The NOAA National Severe Storms Forecast Center analyzed 1372 
tornadoes that occurred from 1950 to 1992 at or south of 30°N latitude in Florida. Most 
tornadoes occur singly, and rarely are there more than 3 tornadoes in one day. A threshold of 
four tornadoes per day is the regional definition of a tornado outbreak. The greater majority of 
four or more tornado events occur in four hours or less. In addition, tornadoes have to be 
related to the same synoptic forcing mechanism to be considered part of a tornado outbreak. 
The yearly distribution of tornado outbreaks from 1950 to 1992 is listed in Table 8. The 
scarcity of outbreaks prior to 1964 is related to lower population density and the fact that only 
the most intense tornadoes were reported. 


* NOAA/NWS/National Climatic Data Center, 37 Battery Park Ave., Asheville, NC 28001-2733. 


1 5 




















Table 7. Weather stations south of Lake Okeechobee listed at the NOAA National Climatic Data 
Center. 


Station 

Division 

Station 

Latitude 

Longitude 

Begin 

End 

number 

number 


(N) 

(W) 

year 

year 

61 1 

5 

BELLE GLADE EXP STN 

26° 

40’ 

CD 

o 

o 

38' 

1 948 

1988 

61 1 

5 

BELLE GLADE EXP STN 

26° 

39' 

CD 

O 

0 

38' 

1 988 

Active 

616 

5 

BELLE GLADE HRCN GT 4 

26° 

42' 

CD 

O 

0 

43' 

1970 

Active 

845 

6 

BOCA RATON 

26° 

22' 

o 

O 

CD 

7' 

1 985 

Active 

1271 

5 

CANAL POINT GATE 5 

26° 

52' 

CD 

O 

o 

38' 

1 951 

1 988 

1271 

5 

CANAL POINT GATE 5 

o 

CD 

CM 

52' 

CD 

O 

o 

38' 

1 989 

Active 

1276 

5 

CANAL POINT USDA 

26° 

52' 

CD 

O 

o 

37' 

1 969 

1 988 

1276 

5 

CANAL POINT USDA 

26° 

52' 

o 

O 

CD 

37' 

1 988 

Active 

1 654 

5 

CLEWISTON US ENGINEERS 

26° 

45' 

0 

O 

CD 

55' 

1951 

1989 

1654 

5 

CLEWISTON US ENGINEERS 

26° 

45' 

CD 

O 

o 

55' 

1989 

Active 

1795 

7 

CONCH KEY 

24° 

47' 

o 

O 

co 

53' 

1 982 

Active 

1858 

6 

CORAL SPRINGS 

0 

CD 

CM 

16' 

CD 

o 

o 

16' 

1 991 

Active 

2298 

5 

DEVILS GARDEN 

0 

CD 

CM 

36' 

81° 

8' 

1 974 

Active 

2850 

5 

EVERGLADES 

25° 

51' 

81° 

23' 

1 967 

1988 

2850 

5 

EVERGLADES 

25° 

51' 

81° 

23' 

1 988 

Active 

3020 

5 

FLAMINGO RANGER STN 

25° 

9' 

0 

O 

00 

55' 

1 964 

1 988 

3020 

5 

FLAMINGO RANGER STN 

25° 

9' 

0 

O 

00 

55' 

1 988 

Active 

3163 

6 

FORT LAUDERDALE 

26° 

6' 

CD 

O 

o 

12' 

1982 

Active 

3180 

5 

FORT MYERS BEACH 2 

26° 

27' 

81° 

56' 

1965 

Active 

3186 

5 

FORT MYERS FAA/AP 

26° 

35' 

81° 

52' 

1 981 

1 989 

3186 

5 

FORT MYERS FAA/AP 

26° 

35' 

81° 

52' 

1 989 

Active 

3909 

6 

HIALEAH 

25° 

50' 

o 

O 

CO 

17' 

1 951 

1988 

3909 

6 

HIALEAH 

25° 

50' 

CD 

o 

o 

17' 

1 988 

Active 

4091 

6 

HOMESTEAD EXP STN 

o 

CO 

CM 

30' 

CD 

o 

o 

30' 

1 985 

1987 

4091 

6 

HOMESTEAD EXP STN 

25° 

30' 

CD 

O 

0 

30' 

1 987 

1989 

4091 

6 

HOMESTEAD EXP STN 

25° 

30' 

o 

O 

00 

30' 

1 989 

Active 

4095 

6 

HOMESTEAD GEN AVIATION 

25° 

30' 

80° 

33' 

1 990 

Active 

4210 

5 

IMMOKALEE 3 NNW 

26° 

28' 

81° 

26' 

1970 

1 988 

4210 

5 

IMMOKALEE 3 NNW 

26° 

28' 

81° 

26' 

1 988 

Active 

4570 

7 

KEY WEST WSO AIRPORT 

24° 

33' 

81° 

45' 

1 957 

1 990 

4570 

7 

KEY WEST WSO AIRPORT 

24° 

33’ 

81° 

45' 

1 990 

Active 

4662 

5 

LA BELLE 

26° 

45' 

81° 

26' 

1 956 

Active 

4667 

5 

LA BELLE 

26° 

46' 

81° 

27' 

1978 

Active 

5182 

6 

LOXAHATCHEE 

26° 

41' 

80° 

16' 

1980 

1 988 

5184 

6 

LOXAHATCHEE NWR 

26° 

30' 

80° 

13' 

1990 

Active 

5658 

6 

MIAMI BEACH 

ro 

cn 

o 

47' 

CD 

o 

o 

8' 

1 948 

1 986 

5658 

6 

MIAMI BEACH 

25° 

47' 

o 

O 

oo 

8' 

1 986 

Active 

5663 

6 

MIAMI WSCMO AIRPORT 

25° 

48' 

CD 

O 

o 

18’ 

1980 

Active 

5678 

6 

MIAMI 12 SSW 

25° 

39' 

00 

O 

o 

18’ 

1 958 

1 988 

5895 

5 

MOORE HAVEN LOCK 1 

26° 

50' 

81° 

5' 

1975 

1 988 

5895 

5 

MOORE HAVEN LOCK 1 

26° 

50' 

81° 

5' 

1 988 

Active 

6078 

5 

NAPLES 

26° 

10' 

81° 

47' 

1 984 

Active 

6323 

5 

NORTH NEW RIVER CANAL 

26° 

20' 

0 

O 

oo 

32' 

1951 

Active 

6406 

5 

OASIS RANGER STN 

25° 

51' 

81° 

2' 

1 978 

1 986 

6406 

5 

OASIS RANGER STN 

25° 

51' 

81° 

2' 

1 986 

Active 


1 6 



Table 7. Weather stations south of Lake Okeechobee listed at the NOAA National Climatic Data 
Center (cont.). 


Station 

Division 

Station 

Latitude 

Longitude 

Begin 

End 

number 

number 


(N 

) 

(W) 

year 

year 

6657 

5 

ORTONA LOCK 2 

26° 

47' 

81° 

18' 

1 951 

Active 

6988 

5 

PENNSUCO 5 WNW 

o 

in 

eg 

56' 

oo 

o 

o 

27' 

1 968 

Active 

7020 

6 

PERRINE4W 

25° 

35' 

o 

O 

CO 

26’ 

1 989 

Active 

7200 

7 

PLANTATION KEY 

O 

CVJ 

58' 

o 

O 

co 

33' 

1962 

Active 

7254 

6 

POMPANO BEACH 

26° 

14' 

oo 

o 

o 

9' 

1 948 

1 988 

7254 

6 

POMPANO BEACH 

0 

CO 

C\J 

14' 

o 

O 

CO 

9' 

1 988 

Active 

7293 

5 

PORT MAYACA S L CANAL 

26° 

59' 

oo 

o 

0 

37' 

1 980 

Active 

7397 

5 

PUNTA GORDA 4 ESE 

o 

CO 

CVJ 

55' 

82° 

O' 

1982 

Active 

7760 

6 

ROYAL PALM RANGER STN 

25° 

23' 

0 

o 

CO 

36' 

1 949 

1987 

7760 

6 

ROYAL PALM RANGER STN 

25° 

23' 

o 

o 

CO 

36' 

1 987 

Active 

8780 

5 

TAMIAMI TRAIL 40 Ml BEN 

25° 

45' 

o 

o 

CD 

50' 

1 958 

1 986 

8780 

5 

TAMIAMI TRAIL 40 Ml BEN 

25° 

45' 

80° 

50' 

1 986 

Active 

8841 

7 

TAVERNIER 

25° 

O' 

00 

o 

o 

31' 

1 985 

Active 

9010 

5 

TRAIL GLADE RANGES 

25° 

46' 

80° 

29' 

1 982 

Active 

9525 

6 

WEST PALM BEACH WSO AP 

26° 

41' 

o 

o 

CD 

7' 

1 977 

Active 


Table 8. Yearly distribution of tornado 
(Hagemeyer and Matney, 1994). 

outbreaks and 

outbreak 

tornadoes, 1950 - 1993 

Year 

Outbreaks 

Tornadoes 

Year 

Outbreaks 

Tornadoes 

1950-54 

0 

0 

1975 

1 

5 

1 955 

1 

6 

1976-77 

0 

0 

1956 

1 

4 

1 978 

3 

1 8 

1957-63 

0 

0 

1979 

3 

30 

1 964 

1 

9 

1980-81 

0 

0 

1 965 

1 

4 

1982 

1 

1 0 ) 

1966 

1 

4 

1983 

2 

20 

1 967 

0 

0 

1984 

1 

4 

1968 

2 

1 3 

1985 

0 

0 

1 969 

0 

0 

1986 

1 

9 

1970 

2 

1 1 

1987-90 

0 

0 

1971 

2 

1 2 

1 991 

2 

1 5 

1 972 

2 

1 8 

1 992 

1 

9 

1973 

2 

9 

1 993 

2 

1 9 

1974 

0 

0 





1 7 





5.1.3. Hurricanes 


Hurricanes are tropical cyclones with wind speeds of 119 km per hour (74 mph) or higher that 
occur over the Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico usually during summer and 
fall. These storms originate in warm waters in areas of low pressure and with wind circulation 
counterclockwise around the center. Hurricanes have struck South Florida half of the years 
during the past century, and the frequency of hurricanes is greater in South Florida than in any 
other place in the US (Gentry, 1984). The frequency of hurricanes in the Atlantic was below 
normal from 1894 through 1930, and was especially low from 1911 through 1921. During the 
1930s, the frequency increased above normal and remained so through 1982, with the 
exception of a few years around 1940. In Florida, the frequency was above normal from 1933 
- 1938, 1945 - 1952, and 1964 - 1966. Otherwise, frequencies have been slightly below 
normal. The increase in frequencies in the Atlantic area during the 1930s may be attributed to 
improved observations. In addition to the variations in frequencies for the Atlantic, there are 
periods in which the hurricane tracks seem to concentrate on Florida, for example 1945 - 
1950. During 1952 - 1957 and 1967, they seemed to shift away from Florida. 

Tropical storms passing over or within a radius of approximately 50 mi of Florida Bay from 
1910 to 1993 are listed in Table 9. The intensity of the storm on the Saffir/Simpson scale 
(Table 10) at the time it passed over or closest to the Bay is noted in Table 9. 

Meeder and Meeder (1989) described the effects of hurricanes on the Florida Bay ecosystem 
and contrasted them to the effects of fires in south Florida terrestrial ecosystems. Just as the 
importance of fires has been recognized in the management of terrestrial ecosystems, the role 
of hurricanes on coastal and shallow bay communities must also be recognized. Anthropogenic 
alteration of hurricane runoff quantity and timing, quality of runoff water and tidal exchange 
rates are possible. Intense periods of rapid runoff appear to be very significant in maintaining 
the Florida Bay ecosystem. Physical processes associated with hurricanes are: rainfall, storm 
tides, extreme wind and waves, and outwash. Although predicting the precise effects of any 
given hurricane is difficult, several observations were made after analysis of storm data since 
1971: (1) a total of 95 tropical storms have affected the Florida Bay ecosystem, and 20 of 
these were considered major storms; (2) nearly 50% of all the storms fell within three 
general tracts; (3) of 39 storms analyzed since 1916, rainfall from individual storms made up 
1.7 to 14% of annual rainfall; (4) storms from different vectors produced different rainfall 
characteristics; and (5) 11 storms from two vectors produced more than twice as much rain 
as other storms (averaging 213 mm). From these observations, two generalizations were 
made: storms that affect the Bay bottom and coastline occur at reasonably predictable 
intervals of one every 3 - 5 yrs, and storms which produce extreme freshwater runoff occur 
once every 6 to 7 yrs. 

Although Hurricane Andrew was a devastating storm for South Florida, the last major 
hurricane to significantly impact Florida Bay was Hurricane Donna. An excellent description of 
the effects of that storm on the Bay was prepared by Craighead and Gilbert (1962) and 
excerpts of this work are used in this section. 


Table 9. Tropical storms passing over or within a radius of approximately 50 mi of Florida Bay 
from 1910 to 1993 (Neumann et al., 1993) [Storm track data in NOAA (1993) was used to 
determine storm intensity when it passed over Florida Bay]. 


Year 


Category 

Storm name and month 

Year 


Category 

Storm name and month 





of origin 




of origin 

1916 


1 

Storm 

14, Nov. 

1952 


☆ 

Storm 1, Feb. 

1919 


☆ 

Storm 

2, 

Sept, (near Bay) 

1953 


☆ 

Storm 3, Aug. (near Bay) 

1 924 


3 

Storm 

7, 

Oct. (near Bay) 

1960 


4 

Storm 5 (Donna), Aug. 

1 926 


4 

Storm 

6, 

Sept. 

1960 


A 

Storm 7 (Florence), Sept. 

1926 

0 

V 

Storm 

7, 

Sept. 

1962 

0 

A 

Storm 1 (Alma), Aug. 

1926 

0 

3 

Storm 

10, Oct. 

1964 

0 

2 

Storm 5 (Cleo), Aug. 

1928 


☆ 

Storm 

2, 

Aug. 

1964 

0 

3 

Storm 11 (Isbell), Oct. 

1929 


3 

Storm 

2, 

Oct. 

1965 


3 

Storm 3 (Betsy), Aug. 

1932 


☆ 

Storm 

3, 

Aug. 

1 966 


1 

Storm 9 (Inez), Sept. 

1933 

0 

2 

Storm 

18 

, Sept, (near Bay) 

1 968 


A 

Storm 2 (Brenda), June 

1934 


☆ 

Storm 

1 , 

May (near Bay) 

1968 

0 

* A 

Storm 4 (Dolly) (near Bay) 

1935 


4 

Storm 

2, 

Aug. 

1969 

* 

A 

Storm 13 (Jenny), Oct. 

1935 


1 

Storm 

6, 

Oct. 




(near Bay) 

1936 



Storm 

1 , 

June 

1970 


A 

Storm 7 (Felice), Sept. 

1936 


☆ 

Storm 

5, 

July 

1970 

0 

V 

Storm 8 (Greta), Sept. 

1 941 


2 

Storm 

5, 

Oct. (near Bay) 

1972 


A 

Storm 5 (Dawn), Sept. 

1 945 


☆ 

Storm 

7, 

Sept, (near Bay) 

1976 

* 

☆ 

Storm 5 (Dottie), Aug. 

1945 


3 

Storm 

9, 

Sept. 

1981 


☆ 

Storm 4 (Dennis), Aug. 

1947 


2 

Storm 

4, 

Sept, (near Bay) 

1987 


1 

Storm 7 (Floyd), Oct. 

1 947 


1 

Storm 

8, 

Oct. 

1991 


☆ 

Storm 6 (Fabian), Oct. 

1 948 


3 

Storm 

7, 

Sept, (near Bay) 




(near Bay) 

1948 


3 

Storm 

8. 

Oct. 

1992 


4 

Storm 2 (Andrew), Aug. 

1950 


3 

Storm 

11 

(King), Oct. (near 




(near Bay) 




Bay) 



1 993 



.... 







1 994 



(Gordon) 


* Storm passed between approximately 50 to 100 mi of the Bay. 0 Storm passed on the Atlantic side of the mainland or the 
Florida Keys or west of Key West. ☆ Tropical storm. A Tropical depression in development stage when it passed over the Bay. 

V Tropical depression in dissipation stage when it passed over the Bay. 


Table 10. Saffir/Simpson hurricane intensity scale (Morgan and Morgan, 1989): 


Category Central pressure 

(mb) (in) 

Wind 

(mph) 

speed 

(km/hr) 

Storm 

(ft) 

surge 

(m) 

Damage 

1 

>980 

>28.94 

74-95 

121-154 

4-5 

1-2 

Minimal 

2 

965-979 

28.50-28.91 

96-110 

155-178 

6-8 

2-3 

Moderate 

3 

945-964 

27.91-28.47 

111-130 

179-210 

9-12 

3-4 

Extensive 

4 

920-944 

27.17-27.88 

131-155 

21 1-250 

13-18 

4-6 

Extreme 

5 

<920 

<27.17 

>155 

>250 

>18 

>6 

Catastrophic 






Hurricane Donna moved slowly through southern Florida, at approximately 14 mph, subjecting 
the area to damaging winds for nearly 36 hrs. In the Flamingo area, estimated sustained winds 
were 140 mph with gusts to 180 mph or more. High storm tides in Florida Bay and along the 
lower Gulf Coast contributed greatly to the damage. Maximum storm tide at Flamingo was 12 ft 
above the normal high tide. Hurricane damage to the vegetation was generally most severe in 
the mangrove belt and on the keys in the western portion of Florida Bay. This area, except for a 
small section from Little Madeira Bay eastward, was within the path of the wall cloud of Donna, 
where the strongest winds were located. Storm damage lessened inland away from the storm 
center and wall cloud. However, this was extremely erratic, depending on the eccentricities of 
the wind, the type and size of vegetation, character of the soil, and other factors. 

The 1935 Hurricane virtually demolished the mature mangrove forest along the mainland coast 
of Florida Bay around Flamingo and Cape Sable. Estimated wind velocities up to 200 mph and a 
hurricane tide of 11 to 18 ft were reported for this storm. The forest in the Flamingo area was 
a fine mature stand of red, white and black mangroves, and buttonwood, called the "black 
forest" by some of the former residents. Trunks of many large dead trees killed in the 1935 
storm were still standing when Donna struck. Some living trees, survivors of the 1935 storm, 
were also present. Most of these survivors were killed, but a small number were recovering at 
the time of the damage survey by Craighead and Gilbert (1962). These large black mangroves 
were conspicuous above the broken remains of the second growth forest that developed since 
the 1935 storm. The most severe damage in the mangrove belt from Hurricane Donna occurred 
from Madeira Bay westward to Shark River. Between Flamingo and West Lake there are many 
places where all of the trees over 2 in in diameter were sheared off 6 to 10 ft above the 
ground. 

In general, the severity of damage to Florida Bay keys increased from the eastern half of the 
Bay westward to Sandy Key. This damage was erratic, but it was chiefly the southeastern 
portions of these keys where defoliation and breakage was most severe. Coconut palms 
suffered severely. The large clump on the north end of Buoy Key was torn away. On Clive Key, 
only seven out of about twenty coconut palms were left standing. Palm Key, before this storm, 
supported about fifty large cabbage palms. Many of these had survived the 1935 storm but all, 

except for three of the larger palms, were torn away. Sixty-seven of the younger trees 6-10 

ft tall survived. Thatch palms fared much better. On Clive Key, some 30 - 40 remained 
standing. Four were blown down but were expected to continue to grow. Many of the thatch 
palms in the vicinity of Fan Palm Hammock were flattened by the 1935 hurricane, but 
nevertheless many of these lived and developed new upright trunks. Measurements and 
comparisons of the relative length of the flat and upright portion indicated these palms to be 
over 100 yrs of age. The larger cabbage palmettos on Palm Key are probably about the same 
age. 

Several larger islands in Florida Bay, including Palm, Oyster, Clive, Murray, Man o' War, and 
Otter Keys, were examined in more detail on foot. These keys were highest on the levee-like 
rim just inside the mangroves where they support some hardwood trees. The interior was 
covered by several species of grasses and salt tolerant plants depending on the elevation, 
becoming more sparse toward the lowest central ground which was a bare marl flat covered 
with water in the rainy season. The mangrove rims were badly broken, especially on the east 
and south sides, and the broken trees were carried across and piled up on the north and western 

fringe. This drift line of debris averaged about 8 ft high. All trees were defoliated except the 

low shrubs and an occasional clump of trees of the mangrove fringes. Observation in the early 
1950s and inquiries from people who knew the keys before and after the 1935 Hurricane 
indicated that the mangrove fringe on many keys was completely torn away by that storm. The 
herbaceous and shrubby vegetation was little affected. Exceptions were noted on Man o' War 
and Oyster Keys where the top soil was washed off on the levee-like rim and the herbaceous 
plants uprooted. Many of the large key lily Hymenocallis bulbs were found hanging in trees with 


20 


the drift. Hundreds of these were carried to the mainland where they were left along the shore 
or hanging in the brush. 

Hurricane Donna profoundly altered some of the physical features of the area. A deposit of silt 
varying from a trace to 5 in. was carried over the area inundated by the tidal wave. The 
deposit was heavier in the denser vegetation near the shore, building up the coastal flats of the 
mainland and adding to the higher rim characteristic of the Florida Bay keys. This deposit is an 
important factor in raising the elevation of the land formation of the coastal prairie and 
hammocks and especially the Florida Bay keys, some of which are 18 to 24 in. higher than the 
interior land. An appreciable deposit was left in the coastal mangrove areas where 2 to 5 in. 
elevation is an important factor in the encroachment of other plant species into this type. This 
deposit is high in nutritive values as indicated by the luxuriant growth that developed on it 
during the months following the storm. On some exposed keys and coastal hammocks the entire 
humus deposit and surface soil was removed and the debris carried inward to form a moraine 
2-5 ft high where the vegetation acted as a barrier. This will stimulate hammock formation. 

Some smaller keys were practically obliterated. Sandy Key was cut in two, and Cape Sable 
beaches were altered considerably. Inland, practically all the small mangrove creeks and canals 
were clogged with wind thrown trees. The Bear Lake Canal, formerly 4-6 ft deep, was filled to 
within 6-12 in of the surface with organic deposit from the mangrove forest and marl from the 
Bay. This action will hasten the obliteration of those creeks where the currents are not strong 
enough to prevent further deposits of humus and silt. Many such filled creeks were present in 
the mangrove belt. 

Many of the Florida Bay keys have moats up to 10 ft deep and 50 ft wide on the northeast, east 
or southeast side directly against the mangrove fringe. Dildo Key is nearly surrounded by such 
a moat. Craighead and Gilbert (1962) attributed these moats to the action of storm waves 
beating against the solid wall of mangroves and scouring out the marl down to the Miami oolite 
bedrock. 

Tabb and Jones (1962) studied the mortality of aquatic animals caused by Hurricane Donna. Fish 
and invertebrates were stranded by retreating salt water which had been driven inland or were 
killed by mud suffocation or turbulence. Oxygen depletion due to decomposition of organic 
material caused subsequent mortality. Salinities returned to normal within 6 weeks, but 
dissolved oxygen concentration remained abnormally low for a longer period. When 
environmental conditions again became suitable, the stricken areas were recolonized from 
surrounding regions. Sport fish catches in the area declined immediately after the storm, but 
recovered within one to several months, depending on the locality. Catch statistics indicate that 
after the storm juvenile pink shrimp moved from their estuarine nursery grounds into deeper 
water about 60 mi offshore, where they were caught by the fishery. There is no evidence that 
the aquatic fauna of the area suffered any permanent damage. 

Hurricane Andrew passed over Homestead August 24, 1992. Andrew was a relatively dry 
hurricane, with strongest sustained winds of 144 mph. The hurricane passed directly over 
Biscayne Bay and had little effect on Florida Bay. The effects of this storm on Biscayne Bay and 
the northern Florida Keys have been described in several works (Blair et al., 1994; Bohnsack 
et al., 1994a; O'Brien et al., 1994; Meier and Porter, 1994; Meeder et al., 1994; Milton et 
al., 1994; Pimm et al., 1994; Smith et al., 1994; Tilmant et al., 1994; and others) 


21 


Table 11. El Nino years from 1910 to 1993 (Quinn et al., 1987). 


Event no. 

Year 

Strength 

21 

1911-12 

S 

22 

1914 

M + 

23 

1917 

S 

24 

1918-19 

W/M 

25 

1923 

M 

26 

1925-26 

VS 

27 

1930-31 

W/M 

28 

1932 

S 

29 

1 939 

M + 

30 

1940-41 

S 

31 

1 943 

M + 


Event no. 

Year 

Strength 

32 

1951 

W/M 

33 

1953 

M + 

34 

1957-58 

S 

35 

1965 

M + 

36 

1972-73 

S 

37 

1976 

M 

38 

1982-83 

VS 

39 

1 987 

M 


91-92 

* 


92-93 

* 


94-95 

* 


W/M - Nearly moderate. M+ - Nearly strong. S - Strong. VS - Very strong. 

* Personal communication. J. Bell, NOAA/NWS/National Meteorological Center Climate Analysis Center, Camp Springs, MD. 


5.2. El Nino events 

The El Niho/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is the largest single source of interannual climatic 
variability on a global scale and its effects are wide ranging (Diaz and Markgraf, 1992). The 
Southern Oscillation is a large scale sea level pressure "seesaw" across the tropical Pacific 
Ocean. The anomalous oceanic and atmospheric conditions that occur periodically along the 
upwelling zone of the Equatorial Pacific along the coast of Ecuador and Peru is known as El Nino 
and is a manifestation of coupled ocean-atmosphere processes. The warm phase of this coupling 
is known as El Nino and the cold phase as La Nina. Winter et al. (1994) found a very good 
correspondence between low d 13 C values (indicative of cloud cover) in a core taken from a 
specimen of Montastrea annularis and strong El Nino events indicating that the Caribbean is 
sensitive to ENSO activity. Various efforts have been made to determine El Nino and La Nina 
years using various data sets and techniques. Several of these efforts are discussed in Diaz and 
Markgraf (eds.) (1992). Those determined by Quinn et al. (1987) are listed in Table 11. During 
the past centuries, El Nino events tend to repeat over periods of 3 - 4 or 7 - 8 yrs (Quinn et 
al., 1987; Brier et al., 1989; and others). 

Wilson (1989) compared onsets of El Nino events and major volcanic activity and found that 
40-60% of El Nino events are preceded within one or two years by major volcanic eruptions in 
the tropics, while 70-80% are preceded within one or two years by major eruptions 
somewhere in the world. A number of El Nino events, however, cannot be directly linked with 
any major volcanic eruption that preceded them within three years. Major, tropical volcanic 
activity can inject large quantities of aerosols into the stratosphere and can account for about 
70% of El Nino events. Wilson (1989) also compared onsets of El Nino events to specific phases 
of the solar/geomagnetic cycles and found that nearly two thirds of El Nino events had their 
onsets when the annual sunspot number was below 54 (the average annual sunspot number for 
the interval 1848 to 1987). 

Hanson and Maul (1991) identified rainfall anomalies associated with major El Nino events in 
the climate record of the seven climatic divisions of Florida. Only El Nino events that were 
strong enough to persist over two successive years were examined in this study. Therefore 
only "moderate" and "strong" events as defined by Quinn et al. (1987) were used. An additional 


22 




requirement was that the year prior to the two-year event must be a non-El Nino year. The 
two-year events that met this criteria were: 1911-12, 1917-18, 1925-26, 1930-31, 1939- 
40, 1957-58, 1972-73, and 1982-83. The most significant anomalies were: below normal 
rainfall over the State during winter (December, January and February) and spring (March, 
April and May) of the year prior to an El Nino event; and above normal rainfall over the State 
during the winter and spring of the second year of an El Nino event. The largest rainfall 
anomalies occurred in the southern climatic divisions of Florida (the Everglades and southeast 
coast, lower east coast, and the Keys). 

5.3. Volcanic eruptions 

As early as 1913, the effect of volcanic eruptions on global climate was recognized, and the 
levels of solar radiation after a volcanic eruption measured (Abbot and Fowle, 1913). 
Scattering of sunlight by volcanic aerosols can change the Earth's albedo or reflectivity, 
thereby causing climatic changes (Wilson, 1989). It has been shown that direct volcanic 
injection of material into the stratospheric aerosol layer occasionally takes place, and 
historically, effects such as poor harvests due to cool summers related to volcanic activity 
have been documented (Newell and Deepak, 1982; Friend, 1991; Rampino, 1991a and 1991b; 
Robock, 1991; and others). Recently, atmospheric chemical and radioactive effects have been 
examined. The eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in June 1991 produced a stratospheric aerosol cloud 
which was observed at altitudes between 18 - 28 km (Kinnison et al., 1992). Although the 
latitudinal distribution of Pinatubo aerosol was initially equatorial, some of the material seemed 
to reach northern mid-latitudes, primarily in the lower stratosphere. Aerosol optical thickness 
was consistently observed to be twice the expected background values in a zone about 40° wide 
straddling the equator. This increased aerosol burden produced a strong cooling effect 
immediately after the eruption and the effect increased through September 1991 (Minnis et al., 
1993). The observed correlation of stratospheric plumes with climatic effects indicates that 
those plumes nearest the Equator have the largest impact on surface temperatures (Jakorsky, 
V)86). Injection of debris into the stratosphere is more important in determining the effect on 
climate than the volcanic explosivity of the eruption or the actual height reached within the 
stratosphere. Volcanic eruptions observed to reach the stratosphere since 1883 are listed in 
Table 12 (Jakorsky, 1986). 

5.4. Solar cycles 

Sunspots are dark (cool) areas on the Sun's surface that interrupt the regular pattern of solar 
emissions (NOAA, 1991a). Sunspots are accompanied by strong magnetic fields and have 
lifetimes ranging from days to a few months. Sunspot frequency rises and falls with the 11-yr 
solar cycle and provides an index of solar magnetic activity. In 1848, the Swiss astronomer 
Johann Rudolph Wolf introduced a daily measurement of sunspot number. His method, which is 
still used today, counts both the total number of spots visible on the face of the Sun and the 
number of groups into which they cluster because neither quantity alone satisfactorily 
measures sunspot activity. Results can vary greatly, however, since the measurement 
strongly depends on observer interpretation and experience and on the stability of the Earth's 
atmosphere above the observing site. To compensate for these limitations, each daily 
international number is computed as a weighted average of measurements made from a network 
of cooperating observatories. Monthly mean values are shown in Figure 4. The 27-day 
fluctuation that reflects the rotation period of the Sun has been smoothed. The highest daily 
counts on record occurred in December 1957. 

Wilson (1989) found that major tropical volcanic activity (those that can inject sufficient 
quantities of aerosols into the atmosphere that persist up to 3 yrs) can account for 70% of El 
Nino events, although major volcanic activity regardless of latitude can account for 85% of the 


23 


Table 12. Volcanic eruptions observed to reach the stratosphere since 1883 (Jakorsky, 1986). 


Date 

Name 

Plume height (km) 

Latitude 


8/1883 

Krakatau 

27 

- 6 

* 

5/1886 

Etna 

1 4 

38 


5/1902 

Soufriere 

1 6 

1 3 

* 

4/1932 

Quizapu 

1 4 

-45 

* 

3/1947 

Hekla 

26-27 

64 


2/1952 

T rident 

9 

58 


7/1953 

Spurr 

22 

61 


3/1956 

Bezymianny 

36-45 

56 


1/1962 

Tokachidake 

1 2 

43 


3/1963 

Agung 

22 

- 8 

* 

4/1963 

T rident 

1 5 

58 


1 1/1963 

Surtsey 

14.5 

63 


7/1965 

Taal 

1 5-20 

1 4 

* 

2/1966 

Redoubt 

12-16 

60 


7/1967 

Deception Is. 

1 0 

-63 


6/1968 

Fernandina 

22-24 

-0.5 

* 

5/1970 

Hekla 

1 6 

64 


1 0/1974 

Fuego 

22 

14.5 

* 

1/1976 

St. Augustine 

1 1 

59 


4/1979 

Soufriere 

17-19 

1 3 

* 

5/1980 

St. Helens 

24 

46 


8/1980 

St. Helens 

1 3 

46 


1 0/1980 

St. Helens 

1 4 

46 


4/1981 

Alaid 

1 5 

51 


5/1981 

Pagan 

1 3.5 

1 8 

* 

1/1982 

“Mystery cloud“ 

1 7 

-20 

* 

4/1982 

El Chichon 

28 

1 7 

* 

1984 

Home Reef 

1 5 

-1 9 

* 

1985 

Nevado del Ruiz 

1 1 

5 

* 

1986 

Pavlof 

1 6 



1991 

Mt. Pinatubo 

1 8-28 



* Marks volcanoes within 20° 

of the Equator. 





24 




200 



Figure 4. Sunspot cycles and numbers [Redrawn from Wilson (1989).]. 


El Nino events. For unknown reasons, moderate El Nino events appear to occur preferentially 
near the sunspot minimum and when annual sunspot numbers are low. Strong El Nino events 
appear to preferentially occur during the declining portion of the sunspot cycle. 

It has been found recently that the solar radius is variable, with variations on an ~80 yr time 
scale, and that these variations may result in large changes in solar luminosity (Gilliland, 
1982). This ~80 yr cycle, as well as the shorter 11-yr solar sunspot cycle and 22-yr Hale 
cycle of solar magnetic reversals may explain hemispheric temperature trends. A third 
possible cycle is the 18.6-yr lunar nodal cycle in which tidal influences may play an important 
role. 

5.5. Sea level change 

Global sea level has been rising since the last glacial maximum approximately 18,000 yrs ago 
and this rise has not been uniform. Wanless et al. (1994) has shown that the sea level rise for 
the past few thousand years has been about 0.04 cm/yr compared to that of the Holocene, 
approximately 0.25 cm/yr. Maul and Martin (1993) have determined the sea level rise at Key 
West using instrument records from 1846 - 1987. The linear sea level rise has been about 30 
cm and there is a statistically weak but consistent indication that the rate of rise has increased 
slightly since the 1920s (Figure 5). 


6. ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES 
6.1. Species status 

There are several threatened and endangered species in Florida Bay under Federal and state 
protection. These include the key silverside, the green sea turtle, the loggerhead sea turtle, 
hawksbill sea turtle, the Kemp's Ridley sea turtle, the leatherback sea turtle, the manatee, the 
American crocodile, the brown pelican, the southern bald eagle, the osprey, the South 
American kestryl, the Florida sandhill crane, the white crowned pigeon, and others. The Florida 
Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals listed 72 taxonomic species of birds, 
twenty seven of which occur within the terrestrial and freshwater wetlands of the lower 
Everglades (Schomer and Drew, 1982). The Florida coast serves as turtle nesting habitat, 
supporting the second largest nesting population of loggerhead turtles in the world (Thompson, 


25 







Year 

Figure 5. Tidal gauge data from Key West plotted as mean annual sea level as a 10-yr running 
average (dashed line) [Redrawn from Wanless et a/. (1988).]. 


1994). Nonpoint source contamination of coastal waters may be either directly or indirectly 
linked to the fibropapilloma disease found primarily on green turtles in isolated areas of the 
world, including South Florida (Lutz, 1994; Thompson, 1994). 

6.2. Algal blooms 

Algal blooms are caused by a variety of environmental conditions, some of which are natural. 
Algal blooms have been noted in Florida Bay for many years. Anecdotal information collected by 
DeMaria (in press) mentions algal blooms in the Bay as early as the 1940s (See Section 9.5.1). 
Macroalgal blooms have been documented only since 1991 in the western side of the Bay. No 
seasonality was observed. Different taxa blooms have been reported in north central and 
southeastern portions of the Bay and these may have a seasonal signal. 

6.3. Coral reef degradation and diseases 

There are no large coral reefs in Florida Bay. Small patch reefs are found in the Bay although 
conditions for growth are not favorable due to variations in water temperature and suspended 
particulate matter in the water column. The barrier coral reefs are found on the Atlantic side 
of the Florida Keys. Studies from 1984 to 1991 found incidences of coral bleaching not 
accompanied by new growth in six different reefs along the Keys. Bleaching was also found in 
1911, 1914, 1958, 1975, 1983 and 1987. Changes in water temperatures may be a cause of 
coral degradation (Roberts et at., 1982; Roberts et at., 1983; Walker et al., 1982a and 1982b; 
and others). Western Atlantic coral reefs were affected by ’bleaching' in 1987 (Lang et al., 
1992). Recovery occurred faster at shallow sites. Bleached points disappeared by 6 - 8 
months. Bleaching is the result of the loss of endosymbiotic zooxanthellae (photosynthetic 


26 



dinoflagellates) and/or loss of photosyntheric pigments from the algae remaining in the coral 
soft tissues. This can be caused by stress. Bleaching events have been noted worldwide and 
some have coincided with ENSO events. The 1987 event was studied mostly oo the outerFlorida 
Keys, Bahamas, Venezuela and St. Croix. 

Black band disease is present throughout the coral reefs of the Florida Keys (Kuta and 
Richardson, 1994). The disease consists of a population of the cyanobacterium Phormidiurn 
corallyticum and associated microbial community, and is characterized by an active season 
which occurs during the warmer months when water temperature is at or above 25°C. No 
reports of the disease in Florida Bay were found. 

6.4. Seagrass dieoffs 

Seagrasses constitute a complex and highly productive ecosystem that predominates in shallow 
marine areas in South Florida. The seagrass ecosystem provides food and habitat for diverse 
species, including important sports and commercial fisheries. Livingston (1987) reviewed 
historic trends of human impacts on seagrass meadows of Florida. Municipalization, 
industrialization, and agricultural activities in coastal drainage systems have been accompanied 
by various impacts in almost every bay system in Florida. Seagrass meadows have been 
virtually eliminated in most portions of the Pensacola Bay and Tampa Bay systems. Significant 
losses have been noted over the past 20 - 40 yrs in Choctawhatchee Bay, Apalachee Bay, 
Charlotte Harbor, Biscayne Bay, and the Indian River. Lack of reliable data precluded 
appropriate evaluations in other areas. However, the two primary concentrations of 
seagrasses in the northern hemisphere, Florida Bay and the northwest Gulf coast (including 
Apalachee Bay), are currently threatened by wide-ranging forms of human activity, and a 
general lack of long-term, multidisciplinary ecological studies has inhibited a thorough 
understanding of the problem. Studies in Apalachee Bay indicated that relatively minor water- 
quality changes can destroy or severely alter seagrass distribution and productivity, and 
recovery after impact appears to be slow. Light penetration is the most important factor 
affecting seagrass growth and survival, and it is reduced directly or indirectly by algal blooms 
caused by nutrient enrichment, suspended sediments, and/or water color due to dissolved 
organic material (Kenworthy and Haugert, 1991). 

More than 4,000 ha of Thalassia beds were lost in recurring dieoffs since 1987, and an 
additional 23,000 were affected to a lesser degree (Robblee et at., 1991). The areas affected 
were Johnson Key Basin, Rabbit Key Basin, Rankin Lake, Cross Bank, and Sunset Cove. Dead and 
dying Thalassia were first observed near Cross Bank and Rankin Lake during the summer of 
1987. By the summer of 1988, the dieoff was evident in about 30% of the Thalassia beds of 
western Florida Bay. The Sunset Cove bed died between November 1988 and January 1989. 
Dieoffs appear to occur most rapidly during the fall and spring. These recurring episodes of fast 
but patchy dieoffs are different from those observed as the result of eutrophication. 

The dieoffs of Thalassia in Florida Bay have been reported since 1987 and continue as of this 
writing. Large areas were affected during the fall of 1987. There may be a seasonal pattern to 
the dieoffs associated with high temperatures and high salinities during periods of low fresh 
water flow. Drought conditions during which rainfall was lower than average contributed to the 
generation of hypersalinity conditions from 1986 to 1989. This was a major climatic stress 
that may have resulted in seagrass die-off (D. Morrison, National Audubon Society, personal 
communication, 1995). Zieman et ai (1992), in a retrospective analysis of earlier data coupled 
with current studies, showed a large increase in seagrass biomass prior to the dieoff and a 
decline in turnover rate or specific plant productivity during the dieoff. External stress in the 
form of hypersaline conditions, which are partly anthropogenically derived, were found to be 
prevalent during much of the dieoff. Climatic stresses were (1) excessively warm waters in 
the late summer and fall of 1986 - 1988, and 1990, and (2) a reduction of historical tropical 


27 


storm frequency, and (3) reduced rainfall. Historical and anecdotal evidence suggests a 
continuing shift over the past decades from a mixed habitat to an increasingly monospecific 
Thalassia community. Recolonization processes are establishing a more diverse mixture of 
habitats with the potential of enhanced secondary productivity in some areas. In 1992, a major 
dieoff expansion occurred in western Florida Bay. Further evidence of the effect of warm 
temperatures on Thalassia was found by Thorhaug et al. (1973) in the seagrass community near 
the Turkey Point Nuclear Power Plant cooling water canal in Biscayne Bay. Thalassia 
disappeared in areas of water 5°C above ambient, and declined by 50% in waters 3-4°C above 
ambient temperature. Environmental stress caused by climatic variations or changes in salinity 
may also make Thalassia more susceptible to disease (Thayer et al., 1994). Blackened, necrotic 
lesions on Thalassia leaves, caused by a previously undescribed species of the marine slime 
mold, genus Labyrinthula, are frequently associated with seagrass die-off in Florida Bay 
(Durako and Kuss, 1994). Sediment porewater sulfide concentrations in Florida Bay seagrass 
beds affected by the catastrophic mortality of Thalassia were considerably higher than those of 
seagrass beds elsewhere in Florida (Carlson et al, 1994). The high sulfide concentrations 
resulting from microbial degradation of dying Thalassia might have stressed adjacent seagrass 
beds. 

There appears to be a high potential for recovery of Thalassia beds. Thayer et al. (1994) 
postulate a sequence of steps in the recovery process. The alga Batophora oerstedii is the first 
colonizer, with replacement by other algal species, and subsequently Halodule wrightii, and 
eventually Thalassia. 

Seagrass habitats in western Florida Bay have been undergoing changes from monotypic 
Thalassia meadows to large landscapes of barren bottoms or to increasingly heterogeneous 
Thalassia meadows as a result of seagrass die-off patch formation. The cause of die-off is 
unknown but current hypotheses point to environmental stress making this seagrass susceptible 
to disease. The potential exists for colonization and recovery of these die-off patches but the 
sequence of events and the persistence of the recovery have not been evaluated. 

6.5. Sponge dieoffs 

The information in this section was found in Stevely et al. (1978). A historical account of the 
sponge fishery along the east coast of Florida can also be found in Shubow (1969). 

Up until the 1940s, the sponge fishery was one of the most valuable fisheries in Florida. 
However, a combination of disease, heavy harvesting pressure, and the introduction of 
synthetic sponges resulted in reduction of the industry to a small fraction of its former 
importance. Production in the Tarpon • Springs area, the traditional center for sponging in 
Florida, has declined to extremely low levels of harvesting activity. Dade County has emerged 
as the center of the existing sponge industry. Persistence of low level sponging activities in 
Florida for the last 30 yrs indicates that the sponge industry, as it is currently structured, 
will probably not return to former production levels. 

Sponges (phylum Porifera) are considered to be primitive in relation to other animal groups 
because of their simple structure and the fact that apparently no other group of animals has 
evolved from them. There is low level of cellular specialization in sponges. These organisms 
lack distinct organs and tissues, and interdependence sponges closely resemble colonies of 
independent single cell organisms with primitive characteristics. The phylum Porifera is 
divided into three classes based primarily on the composition and structure of the animals' 
skeletal framework. The skeleton may be composed of calcareous spicules, siliceous spicules, 
protein spongin fiber, or a combination of the latter two. These spicules are either calcium 
carbonate or silicon dioxide. The commercial sponges all come from one group, those having 
their skeleton made of spongin fibers only. Spongin is related chemically and physically to silk, 


28 


horn, and chitin. The arrangement of spongin into a fibrous network is responsible for the 
commercial sponges properties of compressibility, resiliency and ability to absorb large 
quantities of water. 

The sheepswool sponge ( Hippiospongia lachne) is considered to be the highest quality 
commercial sponge found in the western Atlantic. It is the most valuable species, representing 
75% of the dollar value of sponges collected in Florida and 87.9% in Monroe County during 
1976. The yellow sponge ( Spongia barbara) is elastic and resilient and is harder than the 
sheepswool, harsher to the touch, less absorbent, less retentive of water, and less durable. 
Yellow sponges accounted for 14.7% of the dollar value of sponges collected in Florida and 
6.3% in Monroe County in 1976. Grass sponges collected off the west coast of Florida differ 
considerably from those taken in the Keys. The grass sponges of the Florida Keys, Bahamas 
Islands, and Cuba, Spongia graminea , vary in form and general appearance, but generally grow 
in a rounded, more compact form with a flat or concave top that is perforated by a number of 
oscules up to 0.65 cm in diameter. Large numbers of these sponges are collected in Biscayne 
Bay but the market value of these sponges is the lowest of all the commercial species. 

The commercial sponges apparently cannot tolerate salinities much below oceanic levels. 
Temperature has been shown to be an important factor affecting sponges. Commercial sponges 
appear to have a tolerance range from 10° C to 35° C. Sponges, due to their sessile nature, are 
dependent upon water currents to bring food, dissolved oxygen, disperse larvae, and to carry 
away wastes. The availability of clean, hard substrate for the sponge larvae to settle upon is 
extremely important since larvae are smothered by sediments. Only a small percentage of the 
large areas defined as the Florida sponge grounds actually support sponge populations due to the 
scarcity of rock outcroppings. 

During 1938 - 1939, populations of commercial sponges throughout the western Atlantic were 
decimated by disease. The disease first appeared in the Bahama Islands and rapidly spread 
throughout the West Indies and the Gulf of Mexico. The progress of the mortality was recorded 
in a detailed manner and transmission of the disease was attributed to water currents. This 
disease has been attributed to the fungus Spongiophaga communis. In British Honduras, 
Spongiophaga was observed growing on the surface of turtle grass, Thalassia, with no apparent 
ill effect. As reported in 1978, a sponger in the Key West area reported that he continually 
found a small number of sponges affected by the fungus. Exactly why the blight has not 
triggered mass mortalities, as it has been reported to do in the past, is not understood. 

During 1947 - 1948, a disease affecting the commercial sponges along the west coast of 
Florida was reported. Investigation of this phenomenon by members of the Marine Laboratory, 
University of Miami, did not reveal the cause of this sponge mortality. No evidence of fungal 
disease was found. Mortality of sponges due to the outbreak of red tide has been noted. Sponge 
fishermen have reported that sponges in shallow water are occasionally killed off by a 
phenomenon they call "mallee". This "mallee* is a heavy growth of fine algae that usually 
smothers sponges. 

Recently, sponge dieoffs were observed in 1992, apparently related to microalgal blooms, with 
a time lag of 5-7 days. The region affected was mid-Bay to the southeast, adjacent to the Keys 
(Brown and Ortner, 1994). The population of juvenile Caribbean spiny lobster may have been 
impacted by the sponge die-off as sponges are a primary shelter for these animals (Childress 
and Herrnkind, 1994). 

6.6. Mangrove dieoffs 

The information in this section was found in Hanlon et at. (1975). A thorough discussion of 
mangrove forest ecology can be found in Odum et at. (1982). 


29 


The most common mangrove species in the tropical coastlines of North America are: the red 
mangrove ( Rhizophora mangle ); the black mangrove ( Avicennia germinans ); the white mangrove 
(Laguncularia racemosa)-, and the buttonwood ( Conocarpus erectus). The mangroves 
characterize and dominate a large portion of the world's tropical coastal margins. As early as 
330 BC, classical writers such as Theophrastus, Pliny the Elder, and Plutarch commented on 
these unusual trees that were nourished by salt water. The mangrove habitat is a unique blend 
of land and aquatic ecosystems. 

There is a natural succession of mangroves from seaward to landward. The red mangrove 
occurs at the seaward edge, the black mangrove occurs further landward, and the white 
mangrove occurs farthest from the shore. The red mangrove, with its thick mass of prop 
roots, is particularly well established in the substrate, and only the most violent of hurricanes 
can disturb it. It forms a protective barrier along the coast, behind which the other mangroves 
and associated flora take root. The accumulation of sand, leaves, and debris which is caught in 
this web of roots eventually decomposes and raises soil levels. At the same time, red 
mangrove seedlings take root farther seaward as the soil level increases. In time, the result is 
a gradual seaward extension of the coastline. The landbuilding quality of the red mangrove is 
important. It does well on nearly all types of soil or substrate provided they are wet. The black 
mangrove does well on all soils, including some dry and salty ones. The white mangrove does 
best in sandy and drier soil, thus explaining its general occurrence on higher ground. 

Until recently, mangrove forests in Florida were regarded as a wasteland suited only for 
development. It can be demonstrated, however, that these forests contribute in many ways to 
man's economic betterment. The contribution of the mangrove swamps to commercial and sport 
fisheries has been a subject of debate for some time. Only very recently have definitive studies 
of their contribution been undertaken. The role of the mangrove can be depicted in the following 
manner. The fallen leaves from the mangroves collect between the roots and begin to 
decompose. Ninety-five percent of the annual mangrove leaf production eventually enters the 
aquatic system. The decomposition is accomplished by the bacteria and fungi in the water, 
which turn the leaves into detritus. The detritus, or plant debris, of mangrove origin accounts 
for 35-60% of the suspended material in estuarine waters. Most of the other detrital material 
comes from the sea grasses. This detritus is the basis of the estuarine food chain, contrary to 
previous thought which maintained that estuarine food chains were based upon phytoplankton. 

A host of small invertebrate animals, ranging from nematode roundworms to small crabs and 
shrimp, feed on this detritus. They in turn are eaten by the larger predators, including 
commercial and game fish. It has been pointed out that the commercial shrimp of the Dry 
Tortugas are dependent upon the mangrove swamp as a nursery ground. Equally important is the 
fact that several other commercially valuable species, including mullet, gray snapper, red 
drum, blue crabs, tarpon, snook, and spotted sea trout, also rely on the mangrove swamp as a 
nursery and feeding ground. It is therefore evident that the destruction of mangroves would be 
tantamount to the removal of the primary food source upon which many animals of commercial 
and recreational importance depend. 

The role of the mangroves in landbuilding, shore protection and stabilization, and reforestation 
is of paramount importance. The tropical belts of the world are subjected annually to tropical 
depressions and hurricanes and mangrove forests are well suited to protect the coastline 
against the force of these storms. 

During the last few years, mangrove dieoffs have been observed. There is no evidence of 
seasonality. The dieoffs were first observed in black mangrove at higher elevations but are 
currently observed in red mangrove at lower elevations. There is a rough correlation with 
seagrass dieoffs suggesting possible correlation to high salinities (Brown and Ortner, 1994). 


30 


Davis (1940) reports that, in numerous instances, fishermen and guides pointed out changes 
they observed during the past 20 to 40 yrs, and some of these observations, when checked 
against maps, were found to be reliable. 

Snedaker (1994) suggests that changes in precipitation and runoff are the most important 
factors concerning mangrove survival in the face of global change. Reduced rainfall and runoff 
would result in higher salinity and greater seawater sulfate exposure. This change would likely 
be associated with decreased primary production and increased sediment organic matter 
decomposition leading to subsidence. Higher rainfall and runoff would result in reduced salinity 
and exposure to sulfate, and also increase delivery of terrigeneous nutrients. Consequently, 
mangrove production would increase and sediment elevations would be maintained. Support for 
this scenario derives from studies of the high production in saline mangrove impoundments 
which are depleted in seawater sulfate. 

6.7. Fish dieoffs 

During the summer/fall period of 1990, three large fish kills occurred in the Snake Bight area, 
east of Flamingo in north central Florida Bay (Schmidt and Robblee, 1994). Based on summaries 
of historical park fish kill events, it was found that 38 kills have occurred since 1944; seven 
took place during the passage of south Florida cold fronts while the remaining 31 occurred 
between March and November and appear to have resulted from hypoxic conditions due to local 
environmental extremes. Nearly half of the kills took place in the waters of either Florida or 
Whitewater Bays; 24% occurred east of Flamingo in Snake Bight. Over half of the Snake Bight 
kills were considered severe (1,000 to 100,000 fish reported as dead); most took place over 
the past 15 yrs. 

6.8. Fish catch changes 

The recorded history of fishing in Florida Bay and the Florida Keys can be traced back to the 
Caloosa Native Americans at the time of the early Spanish explorers (Tilmant, 1989). Native 
Americans from the Upper Keys grew and exported fish to Cuba and early explorers reported 
excellent fish catches in the Keys. Prior to the 1940s, fishing was largely subsistence 
oriented. Fishing activities increased during the 1950s and commercial activities reached a 
peak in the late 1970s. During this time, fishing guides became concerned with declining catches 
(Thayer and Chester, 1989). Evidence of the effect of salinity changes on the fish population of 
Florida Bay is circumstantial but there is evidence that the population size and behavior of 
several species have changed in recent years (Boesch et al., 1993). These effects do not seem 
to extend to the open areas of the Bay. 

Bohnsack et al., (1994b) examined data from commercial, recreational, and marine life 
fisheries in Monroe County. Invertebrates comprised the majority of commercial landings. In 
1992, the total reported commercial landings were composed of 52% invertebrates, 28% reef 
fishes, and 21% non-reef fishes. Landings for some species varied greatly over time. Total 
commercial and recreational catches of reef and non-reef fish for Monroe County are shown in 
Figure 6. The most conspicuous declines were for pink shrimp, combined grouper, and king 
mackerel (Figure 7), while the most conspicuous increases were for amberjack, stone crab, 
blue crab, and yellowtail snapper (Figure 8). Landings of spiny lobster have generally remained 
constant. Fisheries closed to harvest included queen conch, Nassau grouper, jewfish, and stony 
corals. Effective fishing effort has increased over time with more participants and more 
effective fishing technology. Since 1965, the number of registered private recreational vessels 
has increased over six times, while the number of commercial and headboat vessels has 
remained stable. The number of management actions have continually increased and become 
more restrictive with increased fishing effort. 


31 



1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 

Year 


Figure 6. Comparison of total commercial and recreational landings for reef and non-reef 
fisheries in Monroe County. [1983 was an El Nino year. Redrawn from Bohnsack et at. 
(1994b).] 




Figure 7. Commercial landings of pink shrimp, combined grouper species, and king mackerel in 
Monroe County. [Data from Bohnsack et al. (1994b).] 


32 












Landings (million kg) 





Figure 8. Commercial landings of blue crab, stone crab, yellowtail snapper and amberjack in 
Monroe County. [Data from Bohnsack et al. (1994b).] 


33 














Davis (1980) examined fisheries management in Everglades National Park, which involves over 
20 commonly harvested species from six ecosystems, by both commercial and recreational 
fishermen. Analysis of data on catch fishing effort, population age structure of exploited 
species, boating activity, and environmental conditions from 1958 to 1978 show three types of 
change in fishery resources. Some species increased in abundance and shifted their population 
age structure from juvenile toward adult fish, while other species declined in abundance and 
their age structure remained unchanged, including both juvenile and adults. Both general and 
specific increases in boating activity were associated with sharp declines in catch rates, 
whereas decreased boating activity since 1973 was associated with increased catch rates. 
Year-to-year variation in the availability of major game species declined, which may have been 
related to decline in the frequency of extreme climatic events and/or watershed management 
activities. No effects of harvest on finfish stocks in the Park were detected. 

6.9. Wading birds 

[The information in this section is from Powell et al. (1989b), Bancroft et at. (1994), and 
Ogden (1994).] 

Fourteen species of wading birds can be found in Florida Bay, and several of these are closely 
associated with the Bay's ecosystem. Powell et al., (1989b) report that about 50% of the great 
white herons and reddish egrets, and 90% of the roseate spoonbills found in the southeast US 
nest in Florida Bay. Such restricted populations and the high trophic levels of these species 
make wading birds vulnerable to habitat changes. These three species were virtually extirpated 
from Florida Bay from the 1800s to the mid 1930s by harvesting as a food source for humans 
and for their feathers. Once the species were protected, the populations grew quickly (Figure 9 
- 11). The number of great white herons, for example, increased from 20 specimens after the 
1935 hurricane to 800 - 900 specimens in the 1960s. The absence of pre-1800s data does not 
permit comparison of current wading bird populations with those of the pristine environment of 
the early 19th century. The wading population at that time, however, was large. Audubon, for 
example, stated in 1832 that at Sandy Key there were 'flocks of birds that covered the shelly 
beaches'. Powell et al. (1989b) state that the current population seems to be at a lower density 
than those historically present. 



Figure 9. Population growth of reddish egret in Florida Bay. [Redrawn from Powell et al. 
(1989b).] 


34 





Figure 10. Population growth of great white heron in Florida Bay. (Data derived from 
observations from fixed wing aircraft. Open circles are summer censuses, and crossed circles 
are winter censuses.) [Redrawn from Powell et at. (1989b).] 



Year 


Figure 11. Population growth of roseate spoonbill in Florida Bay. (Simple circles are numbers of 
nests counted on ground visits to colonies. Crossed circles are estimates derived from aerial 
counts.) [Redrawn from Powell et al. (1989b).] 


35 






Bancroft et al. (1994) examined general foraging distribution data from systematic aerial 
surveys, specific foraging distribution data obtained from following flights, habitat data from 
the USGS orthophotomaps, hydrological data from gauges and aerial surveys, and colony 
location, size, and sucess data from three recent studies were analyzed. Nesting great egrets 
and white ibises typically foraged within 9 and 10 km, respectively, of their colonies. 
Historically, these species bred in large, mixed-species colonies in the mangrove zone of 
Everglades National Park, whereas currently they breed in much smaller colonies in the water 
Conservation Areas. Examination of the formation, growth and decline of a colony in the Water 
Conservation Areas during the drought year 1989 showed that initially the nesting birds were 
feeding close to the colony. As the area dried out, the overall foraging distribution shifted well 
south of the colony. The compartmentalization of the Everglades may have decresed the ability 
of forage fish to migrate through the system, especially into the deeper sloughs during the dry 
season, thus decreasing the productivity of these areas for nesting wading birds. 

Ogden (1994) examined patterns of nesting for five species of colonial wading birds in the 
central and southern Everglades for two periods: an early drainage period (1931 - 1946) and a 
late drainage period (1974 - 1989). Parameters examined were (1) numbers of birds nesting in 
each colony, (2) locations of colonies, (3) timing and nesting, and (4) colony success. The five 
species analyzed were great egret, tricolored heron, snowy egret, white ibis, and wood stork. 

For all species except the wood stork, the locations of the largest colonies changed between 

periods from a headwaters subregion located at the lower end of the Shark River Slough to a 
central Everglades subregion located north of Everglades National Park. Reductions in the 
number of nesting birds and changes in the location of major colonies appear to correlate with 
the reduction in the total area of wetland foraging habitat, an increased frequency of extensive 
dry outs in the lower Shark River Slough marshes, and the relocation of the longer hydroperiod 
marshes into the Water Conservation Area impoundments. 

6.10. Fires in the Everglades National Park 

Fire and water are the two major natural factors affecting the environment of south Florida. 
Fires are part of the natural cycle of terrestrial and wetland communities, and are a natural 
means of maintaining specific ecosystems (Hofstetter, 1984). Fires are part of the recycling of 
nutrients. Fires prevent the invasion of grasslands by woody plants, and when fire is excluded, 

community succession continues, eventually ending with the climax community for that region. 

For southern Florida, the climax community is hardwood hammock. Natural fires are caused by 
lightning and are a wet season phenomenon. Lightning may also trigger fires during the dry 
season. These can be extensive and can consume peat, sawgrass and forest. The frequency of 
fires resulting from incendiary activities has increased in recent years. The largest fires in the 
Everglades National Park have been incendiary dry season fires. A detailed description of the 
effects of Everglades fires on the vegetation and animals of the Park can be found in Hofstetter 
(1984). 

Fire records for the Everglades National Park, from 1948 through 1979, are reported in 
Taylor (1981). Number of fires and acres burned by year are listed in Table 13. The records 
contain 913 fire reports of which 682 reports cover 451,082 burned acres in Everglades 
National Park, and 251 reports cover 480,080 burned acres in the Everglades Fire Protection 
Zone outside the park. The recorded fires are categorized as human-caused, lightning-caused, 
or prescribed management fires. Total acres burned by each fire type are presented by year 
and month of occurrence. The number of human-caused fires was found to be highly correlated 
with water levels at Taylor Slough Bridge and with precipitation at Royal Palm. Extreme fire 
years, when 20,000 to 100,000 acres may burn, follow an average interval of 6 to 8 yrs; 
moderate to severe fire years, when 10,000 to 20,000 acres may burn, occur on a 3.2- to 
4.3-yr interval. The Everglades National Park has been divided into three fire management 


36 


Table 13. Number of fires and acres burned by lightning fires, prescribed fires, man-caused 
fires, and all fires by year within the Everglades National Park, 1948 - 1979. (Includes 
portions of boundary fires.) [From Taylor, 1981.) 



Lightning 
_fires_ 

Prescribed 
_fires_ 

Human-induced 
_fires_ 

— 

Total_ 

Year 

No. 

Acres 

No. 

Acres 

No. 

Acres 

No. 

Acres 

1948 

0 

0 

7 

176 

0 

0 

7 

176 

1949 

1 

1 

1 5 

7,652 

0 

0 

1 6 

7,652 

1950 

0 

0 

1 4 

33,520 

0 

0 

1 4 

33,520 

1951 

9 

43,155 

7 

785 

0 

0 

1 6 

43,840 

1952 

4 

3,023 

1 3 

2,845 

0 

0 

1 7 

5,868 

1953 

1 

1 1 0 

7 

8,971 

0 

0 

8 

9,081 

1 954 

3 

3,247 

3 

1 0 

0 

0 

6 

3,257 

1955 

2 

127 

9 

3,604 

0 

0 

1 1 

3,731 

1956 

7 

2,201 

1 1 

1,556 

0 

0 

1 8 

3,757 

1957 

7 

1,132 

4 

20,082 

0 

0 

1 1 

21,214 

1958 

3 

305 

3 

750 

1 

1 ,500 

7 

2,555 

1959 

4 

480 

1 3 

836 

2 

1,950 

1 9 

3,266 

1960 

5 

75 

6 

1 82 

3 

2,395 

1 4 

2,652 

1961 

3 

54 

1 0 

1 ,861 

0 

0 

1 3 

1,915 

1962 

2 

33 

1 5 

78,257 

1 

28 

1 8 

78,318 

1963 

7 

1,236 

1 2 

1 ,367 

2 

1 ,530 

2 1 

4,133 

1964 

1 

4 

7 

745 

0 

0 

8 

749 

1965 

2 

1,289 

1 

1 

0 

0 

3 

1,290 

1966 

2 

1 5 

2 

2,846 

1 

2,250 

5 

5,1 1 1 

1967 

2 

9 

5 

4 

3 

1,564 

1 0 

1,577 

1968 

5 

434 

6 

432 

4 

1 30 

1 5 

996 

1969 

0 

0 

2 

1,415 

7 

3,1 55 

9 

4,570 

1970 

1 

30 

3 

2,702 

2 

39 

6 

2,771 

1971 

1 

300 

1 5 

2,1 64 

1 9 

1 1,361 

35 

1 3,825 

1972 

29 

1,261 

7 

16,104 

26 

3,718 

62 

21,083 

1973 

1 7 

1,009 

1 1 

3,008 

50 

1 3,607 

78 

16,624 

1974 

1 2 

8,412 

1 5 

67,515 

35 

14,749 

62 

90,676 

1975 

27 

9,724 

1 2 

7,698 

36 

1 1,497 

75 

28,919 

1976 

5 

92 

2 

1 3,485 

1 9 

6,961 

26 

20,538 

1977 

6 

373 

4 

9 

9 

6,078 

1 9 

6,460 

1978 

9 

926 

2 

121 

7 

1,680 

1 8 

2,727 

1979 

1 3 

2,236 

3 

1 9 

1 9 

5,975 

35 

8,230 

Total 

190 

81,293 

246 

280,622 

246 

89,167 

682 

451,082 

Percent 
of total 

28 

1 8 

36 

62 

36 

20 




37 




Table 14. Population of Dade, Collier, and Monroe counties from 1900 to 1990 [Andriot, 1983; 
and Bureau of the Census, 1994]. 


Year 

Dade 

1900 

4955 

1910 

1 1933 

1920 

42753 

1930 

142955 

1940 

267739 

1950 

495084 

1960 

936047 

1 970 

1267792 

1980 

1629701 

1 990 

1937094 


Monroe 

Collier 

1 8006 


21563 


19550 


1 3624 

2883 

14078 

5102 

29957 

6488 

47921 

1 5753 

52586 

37040 

63188 

85971 

78024 

152099 


units: Unit 1, coastal prairie/mangrove swamp/estuarine marsh; Unit 2, Everglades prairie; 
and Unit 3, pineland. Of these three units, Unit 1 fires are closest to Florida Bay and the Ten 
Thousand Islands. Fires within the mangrove areas are mostly caused by lightning although 
some are human induced. Lightning fires in salt marshes can burn for several days, although the 
rate of spread is quite slow. These types of fires occur mostly during the wet season. 

Fire records from freshwater wetlands in Everglades National Park (1948 - 1992) and Water 
Conservation Areas 2 and 3 (1980 - 1990) were analyzed by Gunderson and Snyder (1994) for 
temporal and spatial patterns. During the 45 yrs of record in Everglades National Park, 752 
fires were registered, with sizes ranging up to -75,000 ha. Over the 11 yrs of record in the 
Water Conservation Areas, 127 fires were registered, the largest of which was -34,000 ha. 
Rank order pattern of fire sizes followed a log-normal distribution, with an anomalous 
clustering of fires ranging from 8000 to 15,000 ha. Fourier analyses of the two data sets 
revealed dominant cycles with frequencies of 7 months, 1 yr, and 10-14 yrs. The annual and 
monthly frequencies occur at the same scale as seasonal variation in both drying patterns 
(rainfall and surface moisture) and in nonhuman ignition sources. The factor influencing the 
longer cycles appeared to be climatic variation, although the causal mechanisms are unclear. 
Human-caused fires account for most fires and area burned, although more lightning fires have 
been recorded in recent years. 

7. ANTHROPOGENIC CHANGES 

7.1. Population changes 

The population of the southeast United States has increased in recent decades and is projected 
to continue to do so at the highest rate of all regions in the Nation (Culliton et al., 1990) further 
stressing the ecosystems within the Southeast. Eastern Florida counties are expected to grow 
at the fastest rate, and are projected to have the highest population density in the Southeast 
United States by 2010. Florida counties on the Gulf coast are also expected to increase in 
population, except for Monroe County, which is expected to have a low population density. The 
population in the three Florida counties surrounding Florida Bay from 1900 to the present is 
listed in Table 14 and shown graphically in Figure 12. 


38 







Figure 12. Numbers of persons in Dade, Collier, and Monroe counties from 1900 to 1990 
[Andriot (1983), and Bureau of the Census (1994)]. 


39 













7.2. Hydrology and canal construction 

A description of the hydrology of the pre-drainage system of the Everglades and water 
management of the area can be found in Parker (1984), DeGrove (1984), and Light and Dineen 
(1994). 

A detailed description of the hydrology of pre-drainage system of the Everglades can be found 
in Parker (1984) and is abstracted in this section. Descriptions of the Everglades, published as 
early as 1832, described the area southwest of Miami as sandy soil with large stone outcrops 
inundated by about two feet of water and very tall and dense sawgrass. During the latter part 
of the 19th century and the early part of the 20th, geologists and naturalists began scientific 
explorations of the Florida peninsula resulting in numerous published accounts documenting pre¬ 
drainage hydrologic conditions of the Everglades. In a paper on the topography of South Florida 
published in 1890, Shaler wrote that very large quantities of water were stored in the 
Everglades behind the Atlantic Coastal Ridge (current location of the city of Miami and adjacent 
municipalities). The Ridge was thickly penetrated with sink holes so that rain and fresh water 
appeared to flow via these underground channels to the sea where they emerged as fresh water 
springs. He further proposed a canal system to drain waters from the Everglades into Biscayne 
Bay. The naturalist Alexander Agassiz, in a note attached to the paper by Shaler, comments: 
‘To the damming up of the waters in the Everglades and to the outbursts of gigantic masses of 
water charged with organic matter and lime, we may trace the immense destruction of fishes 
which so frequently occurs on the shores of the Florida Keys and the waters surrounding them." 

Numerous early reports by land developers, promoters, their hired surveyors and engineers, 
and by early settlers preserve additional observed data. They all add up to the judgment that, 
in pre-drainage days, the Everglades were generally either wet or flooded most of the time but 
that occasionally a drought of two or more years' duration would occur and the glades would 
then become dried out. During such times the surficial soils in the higher parts of this almost 
perfectly flat land would become powdery dry and deeply cracked. Fires would then sweep the 
glades, creating deep, burned-out pockets in the organic soils floored with gray-to-black ash 
layers up to several inches thick. The drainage plan was part of a populist movement designed 
to attract settlers to South Florida (Light and Deneen, 1994), and as early as 1913, a system 
of drainage canals was proposed to drain 'excess" water from Lake Okeechobee and the Florida 
Everglades (Florida Everglades Engineering Commission, 1913). These canals interrupted the 
flow of the Everglades, which is a very shallow, slow moving river, flowing from Lake 
Okeechobee south-southwest into Florida Bay. The slope of this drainage basin is only 2 in. per 
mile. Early efforts at water control included the Everglades Drainage District works, consisting 
of 440 mi (70.8 km) of canals and levees, and the Okeechobee Flood Control District, which 
constructed a federally subsidized dike around the southern rim of Lake Okeechobee. However, 
these efforts were a prelude to a massive federal project (Central and Southern Florida Project 
for Flood Control and Other Purposes) which was authorized after the massive flooding during 
1948. 

The Everglades Drainage District was established at that time, with boundaries running just 
north of Lake Okeechobee down to the Florida Straits excluding the coastal urban areas, the 
Kissimmee and St. Johns valleys and the western part of the Caloosahatchee valley (DeGrove, 
1984). The basic drainage plan of this agency was to lower the level of Lake Okeechobee by 
outlet canals and to furnish additional drainage by a series of canals from the southern shores 
of the Lake southeasterly through the Everglades to connect with the short lower east coast 
rivers. Operations lasted until 1928 with the financial collapse of the Everglades Drainage 
District agency, and basic maintenance was neglected and system efficiency decreased. From 
1931 to 1947, a comprehensive water control program was developed to replace the old 
drainage efforts. In 1949, a comprehensive plan was adopted by the Federal Government 
through the US Army Corps of Engineers. 


40 


Systematic, comprehensive studies of the area began after the 1940s. Studies of the soils 
indicated that they could only have accumulated in a perennially wet, marshy environment 
beginning about 5,500 yrs ago. The organic materials accumulated slowly to a depth of 
approximately 14 feet in the deeper and upper parts of the Everglades. The climate did not 
change significantly during the period of soil accumulation. 

The reduction of the freshwater flow to the Everglades and consequently to Florida Bay has 
resulted in increased salinities in the Bay in more locations and for longer periods than during 
pre-drainage (Mclvor et al., 1994). The filling of passes and shallow banks between several of 
the Keys during construction of the Overseas Railroad reduced circulation in the Bay, 
worsening the high salinity conditions. Effects on the biota have been noted including reduced 
recruitment of pink shrimp, snook, and redfish; lowered reproductive success of ospreys and 
great white herons; and shifts in distribution of West Indian manatees, American crocodiles, 
and others. 

Natural fluorescence of river water, caused by dissolved humic acids, has been used as a 
tracer of freshwater input to nearshore environments (Smith et al., 1989). It has been shown 
that massive hermatypic corals such as Solenastrea bournoni possess fluorescent bands within 
their skeletons, and the frequency and intensity of the bands have a high correlation with 
terrestrial runoff. A core taken from the S. bournoni specimen from the Petersen Key Basin 
showed clear fluorescent banding under ultraviolet light. The relationship between flow in the 
Shark River and Taylor Sloughs and the fluorescent banding from 1940 to the present were 
used to hindcast flow for the period of 1881 - 1939. From the fluorescence pattern, a 
sustained, marked decline in freshwater flow, which began in 1912 and ended around 1931, 
was noted. Fluorescence was significantly higher earlier in the record (prior to 1932) than 
later on, and Smith et al. (1989) interpreted this as indicating decreased freshwater flow from 
the Everglades into Florida Bay of perhaps as much as 59% in the later period. This onset of 
decreased freshwater flow coincided with the construction of drainage canals to the east and 
south of Lake Okeechobee. Periods of reduced growth observed in growth patterns of a 1-m- 
high specimen of the coral S. bournoni from the Petersen Key Basin, Florida Bay, appeared to 
correlate with major anthropogenic environmental perturbations (Hudson et al., 1989). This 
coral species is resistant to sedimentation and water temperature extremes, and no correlation 
was apparent between growth rates and major meteorological events such as hurricanes and 
freezes. 

7.3. Soil subsidence 

A review of subsidence of organic soils in the Everglades can be found in Stephens (1984) and 
is abstracted in this section. The Everglades contains the largest single tract of organic soils in 
the world, over 3,100 square miles. These soils formed under marshy conditions and subsided 
when drained. The subsidence was caused by compaction due to: dissecation, consolidation, and 
tillage; biochemical oxidation; wind erosion; and/or burning. Biochemical oxidation accounted 
for approximately two thirds of the total loss of arable soils in the region. Subsidence has had 
serious environmental effects on agriculture, water supplies and wildlife. The sequence of 
observed subsidence of organic soils at three sites in the Everglades is shown in Figure 13. The 
sites are the North River Canal, just below old South Bay Lock; the Bolles Canal, a major drain 
at Okeelanta; and the Everglades Experiment Station. Ground surface elevation has decreased 
by approximately 9 ft at all three sites. Soil losses have been greatest near the original 
drainage canals and "subsidence valleys' several miles wide were formed along either side. 
Valley depths were greatest where drainage was best. 


4 1 



Figure 13. Sequence of observed subsidence of organic soils in the Florida Everglades after 
initial drainage circa 1912. [Redrawn from Stephens (1984).] 


7.4. Railroad and Overseas Highway 

As early as 1831, Key West was one of the first cities in Florida to express an interest in 
railroads (Albury, 1991; Corliss, 1969). By the turn of the century, Henry Flagler had built a 
railroad, the Florida East Coast Railway, from Jacksonville, close to the Florida - Georgia 
border, to Miami. To promote use of the railroad and trade with Cuba and countries in South 
America, Flagler knew that access to a deep water port was necessary, and the deepest water 
port south of Norfolk, VA, was Key West. Construction of the Panama Canal was another 
incentive since this would place the Florida East Coast Railway within 1000 st. miles of the 
Canal. One of the surveyed routes was through the Everglades to Cape Sable and across Florida 
Bay via a bridge. The chosen route, however, was that of the existing Overseas Highway 
through Homestead to Key Largo and down the Florida Keys. Construction began in 1905 and 
completed in 1912. It was the first major alteration by man of the Florida Keys and Florida 
Bay. Construction of the railroad resulted in the destruction of forests and peats, in part as the 
result of a fire ignited by sparks from the locomotives (Simpson, 1920). During construction, 
three major hurricanes passed over the Florida Keys resulting in deaths and heavy damage to 
the work and equipment. The railroad was destroyed by the Labor Day hurricane of 1935 and 
was not rebuilt. 

The highway which connects the Keys to the mainland was begun in 1928 (Windhorn and 
Langley, 1974). At that time, a combination of bridges and ferries was used to span the 
channels between the Keys. Rather than repair the railroad after the hurricane, it was 
converted into the Overseas Highway, an extension of US Highway 1. Construction began in 
1936 and the highway opened in 1938. During the construction of the highway, dredge and fill 


An excellent account of the surveying activities can be found in Krome (1979). 


42 




operations changed the shorelines of the Keys. The remnants of the railroad were completely 
destroyed during a hurricane in 1953 and the remains of the track were used for the Overseas 
Highway. The highway was completed in the 1950s, although alterations such as the 
replacement structure for the 7-Mile Bridge and maintenance activities continue into the 
1990s. 

7.5. Homestead Air Force Base 

[The information in this section was supplied by the Public Affairs Office of Homestead Air 
Force Base (AFB). The history of the base is an indicator of level of activity, air traffic and 
personnel associated with base operations.] 

During the 1940s, Pan American Ferries, Inc. constructed a landing strip in rural Dade County 
that was turned over to the US Government before the beginning of World War II. Shortly after 
the attack on Pearl Harbor, Army Air Corps officials decided the site would better serve 
defense needs as a maintenance stopover point for aircraft being ferried to the Caribbean and 
North Africa. Soon after, construction of a fully operational military base, the Homestead 
Army Air Field (AAF), began at the site. By 1943, the base assumed a more vital role with the 
activation of the 2nd Operational Training Unit that provided advance training for air crews. As 
the need for trained transport pilots grew, the entire base was transferred to Air Transport 
Command's (ATC) Ferrying Division, with the sole mission of preparing C-54 air crews to fly 
from Burma to China. In September 1945, a massive hurricane passed through the area, with 
winds of up to 145 mph. Because of destruction caused by the storm, the base was shut down in 
December of that year. 

In the early 1950's, as the Korean conflict was winding down, defense officials once again 
looked toward Homestead as a key site in continental defense. In mid-1954, an advance party 
arrived at the old base to begin clean up, and on February 1955, the installation was 
reactivated as Homestead AFB. The base quickly became home for the 823rd Air Division, an 
umbrella organization encompassing the 379th and the 19th Bomber Wings. By this time, 
Homestead AFB represented the largest four-engine transport training operation in the entire 
ATC. In 1962, the 31st Tactical Fighter Wing (TFW), a tactical air fighter unit, was moved 
from George AFB, CA, to Homestead in response to the growing Communist threat from Cuba. In 
October of that year, it was discovered that the Soviet Union was placing medium-range 
missiles on the island. Troops and aircraft were sent to Homestead, swelling its population to 
the tens of thousands. Though still nominally a Strategic Air Command base, Homestead then 
had the dual mission to stand ready to project air power around the world, and to maintain an 
operationally ready tactical air force. With the presence of the 31st TFW made permanent, the 
role of the Tactical Air Command (TAC) at Homestead AFB increased rapidly throughout the 
1960s. In late 1966, the 31st TFW was deployed to Vietnam, and the 4531st TFW was 
activated to maintain TAC's presence at Homestead. In 1968, TAC officially took control of the 
base. In 1970, the 31st TFW returned from Vietnam and became the host unit. In 1981, the 
31st TFW became the 31st Tactical Training Wing and took the task of training F-4 air crews. 
Training remained the base primary mission until 1985, when the first F-16 arrived. With that 
event, the host unit again reclaimed the designation of the 31st TFW. 

Hurricane Andrew struck Homestead AFB and the surrounding area in 1992, causing severe 
damage to the facility. At that time, the base was home to the 31st and the 482nd Fighter 
Wings, both units flew F-16s. Other units in the base were the 301st Rescue Squadron, Air 
Force Reserve; the Det 1, 125th Fighter Interceptor Group, Florida Air National Guard; and the 
US Customs Miami Air Branch. The storm caused extensive damage to the facilities of the base. 
These units were relocated to various other locations during the salvage and recovery phase 
although the 301st Rescue Squadron along with the Coast Guard provided the only emergency 
medical rescue capability in south Dade County after the hurricane. In 1993, the Base 


43 


Realignment and Closure Commission recommended the conversion of the base to a 
military/civilian joint use airfield. The Commission recommended that the host unit, the 31st 
Fighter Wing, be activated and that the 482nd Fighter Wing, the 301st Rescue Squadron, and the 
125th Fighter Interceptor Group be returned to the base. The US Customs unit is scheduled to 
return. Other units have been transferred elsewhere. Approximately one third of the base will 
remain a military installation, the Homestead Air Reserve Station, and the rest will eventually 
be transferred to Dade County. 

7.6. Everglades Jetport 

[Information in this section is from the Wilderness Society (1969), Derr (1989), and National 
Academy of Science (1970).] 

During the late 1960s, Dade County purchased 30 square miles of land in the Everglades for 
construction a small airport at the site. This airport, originally called the Dade-Collier Training 
and Transition Airport (later known as the Everglades Jetport), was to serve for training 
operations to relieve the overburdened Miami International Airport. The Jetport site is 6 mi 
north of the Everglades National Park's 40-Mile Bend Ranger Station and the Miccosukee 
Reservation, and its eastern boundary is nearly common with the west boundary of 
Conservation Area 3A. The site is approximately midway between the two coasts. Construction 
of the 39-square mile facility started in 1968 and runways and maintenance buildings were 
constructed. Each training landing strip destroyed approximately 400 acres of habitat. An 
access corridor to the airport was planned, including one which would have passed through 
Water Conservation Area 3. A coalition of environmentalists, Native Americans, water 
managers and politicians led the nationwide examination of environmental impacts and potential 
adverse effects to the Everglades and adjacent areas. Noise, water flow disruption, pollution 
from airport operations, and many other factors were considered. "The Everglades Jetport 
Pact", executed in 1970, resulted in the transfer of the Jetport property to the US Department 
of the Interior in exchange for acquisition of a site with a reasonable possibility for ultimate 
potential development and the immediate construction of comparable training facilities. As 
potential alternative to the Jetport site, locations in Florida Bay, Key Largo, Biscayne Bay and 
Soldier Key were considered. All these sites required major construction in shallow water. The 
Jetport site became part of the Big Cypress National Reserve. No further construction 
activities have taken place but the site has not been restored. 

7.7. Turkey Point Nuclear Power Plant 

The Florida Power and Light Turkey Point Nuclear Power Plant is located in Homestead and 
covers 22,295 acres (Florida Power and Light, 1994). The facility is a combination of two 
fossil fuel and two nuclear units, and it is linked to the statewide electrical power transmission 
system. The fossil fuel units began operation in 1967 and 1968, and the nuclear units in 1972 
and 1973. The fossil fuel storage units hold 554,000 barrels of low sulfur oil. The fossil fuel 
units consume 20,000 barrels of oil and 4,000 barrels of natural gas daily. Approximately 300 
tons of uranium are required to produce a year's supply of fuel for both nuclear units. 

7.8. Agricultural activities 

Agricultural activities in and around the Everglades, south of Lake Okeechobee, began after the 
drainage projects of 1906 - 1927, and intensified after the water control projects of the early 
1950s, which created the Everglades Agricultural Area (Snyder and Davidson, 1994). 
Currently, more than $750 million is earned annually from production of sugarcane, 
vegetables, sod, and rice and over 20,000 full-time equivalent jobs are provided by the 
agricultural industry of South Florida. The future of this industry is uncertain since the loss of 
organic soils, concerns over nutrients and pesticides drainage, and possible flooding of lands as 


44 


part of the South Florida Ecosystem Restoration Project may result in a reduction of 
agricultural activities. 


8. LEGISLATION 

8.1. Federal legislation 

[The information in this section is condensed from NOAA (1981), Hildreth and Johnson (1983), 
McClain (1991), and Wolf (1988).] 

8.1.1. Federal Clean Water Act 

The Federal Clean Water Act (FWPCA) (33 U. S. C. §§ 1251 et. seq.) was originally enacted in 
1972 to restore and maintain the chemical, physical and biological integrity of the nation's 
waters. This Act was amended with major provisions in 1977, 1981 and 1987. The three 
objectives of the Act were to: eliminate the discharge of pollutants into navigable waters by 
1985; to attain, whenever possible, water quality that allows for fishing and recreational use 
by 1983; and to prohibit the discharge of toxic pollutants in toxic amounts. The FWPCA also 
established a national policy for providing financial assistance to construct publicly owned 
waste water treatment plants. EPA was given the principal responsibility for administering the 
FWPCA. The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) is part of the FWPCA. The 
FWPCA prohibits discharges into navigable waters unless authorized by an NPDES permit. 

8.1.2. Clean Air Act 

The Clean Air Act (CAA) (42 U. S. C. §§ 7401 et. seq.) was enacted in 1970 and extended and 
substantially amended in 1977. The purpose of this act is to protect and enhance the quality of 
the nation's air resources in order to promote public health and welfare and the productive 
capacity of the population. The CAA provides for two principal ways of controlling air pollution: 
national ambient air standards, and point source emission limitations. EPA is required to publish 
a list of air pollutants which is used to set the ambient air standards. 

8.1.3. Toxic Substances Control Act 

The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) (15 U. S. C. §§ 2601 et. seq.) was first enacted in 
1976 and its primary purpose is to regulate the chemical substances that present a hazard to 
human health or to the environment. This act greatly expanded regulation of chemicals. It is 
intended to control chemical hazards at the source. TSCA applies not only to pure chemical 
substances but also to the impurities contained in these materials. 

8.1.4. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act 

The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) (7 U. S. C. §§ 136 et. seq.) was 
originally enacted in 1947 and was amended significantly in 1972 and 1978. When first 
enacted, FIFRA was primarily a pesticide labeling law. The 1972 legislation required 
registration of all pesticides, constituting a premarket clearance for these substances. In order 
to approve registration of a pesticide, EPA must insure that the substance will not affect the 
environment or the population. EPA must also determine that the benefits of using the pesticide 
outweigh the risks associated with its use. 


45 


8.1.5. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 

The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) (42 U. S. C. §§ 6901 et. seq.), also 
known as the Solid Waste Disposal Act, was enacted in 1976 and substantially changed the 
federal regulations for solid waste disposal and control of hazardous waste. 

8.1.6. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 

The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) (42 U. 
S. C. §§ 9601 et. seq.), unofficially known as the Superfund Act, was enacted in 1980 and it 
established a federally-directed program to clean up the nation's most hazardous waste and 
chemical contamination sites. CERCLA enabled the federal government to respond to actual or 
threatened releases of hazardous substances and to recover damages for the destruction or 
harm to natural resources. The original Superfund legislation was disappointing because EPA, 
which was responsible for the administration of the Act, was only able to begin clean up of a 
few sites of the thousands identified nationwide. The Superfund Amendments and 
Reauthorization Act of 1986 amended CERCLA and expanded and toughened the cleanup authority 
of the federal government. 

8.1.7. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act 

The Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (42 U. S. C. §§ 11001 et. seq.) was 
part of CERCLA and established emergency planning, reporting and notification requirements 
that were meant to protect the public in the event of a release of hazardous substances. 

8.1.8. The Endangered Species Act 

The Endangered Species Act (ESA) (16 US §§ 1531 - 1543) was approved in 1973 and last 
amended by PL 100-707 in 1988. The purpose of this Act is to provide a program for the 
conservation of threatened and endangered species of plants and animals, and the habitats in 
which they are found. The Act provides the legislative authority to implement the treaties and 
conventions on endangered species to which the US is signatory. The endangered and threatened 
species found in Florida Bay are listed in Table 2. 

8.1.9. National Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act 

The National Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act was approved in 1972 and last 
amended in 1988 (Marine Sanctuaries §§ 1431 - 1445). The purposes and policies of this 
chapter of the Act are to identify marine areas of special significance, provide for their 
management, support research, enhance public awareness, and to promote all public and private 
uses of the marine environment to the extent that these issues are compatible with resource 
protection. The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary was established in 1990 under this Act 
and implemented in 1994. 

8.1.10. Marine Mammal Protection Act 

The Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) was approved in 1972 and last amended in 1992 
(16 US §§ 1361 - 1384; §§ 1401 - 1407). The purpose of this Act is to protect, conserve, 
and encourage international research on marine mammals. 


46 


8.1.11. Federal Coastal Zone Management Act 

Congress passed the Federal Coastal Zone Management Act in 1972 to further a national 
interest in the effective management, beneficial use, protection, and development of the coastal 
zone. 

8.1.12. Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act 

The Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act authorizes the Federal government to 
conserve and manage all fishery resources, except tuna, within the US fishery conservation 
zone which extends from the seaward boundary of the territorial sea to 200 n mi from shore. 
The Act also provides for exclusive management authority over Continental Shelf fishery 
resources and over anadromous species beyond the US fishery conservation zone. 

8.1.13. Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act 

The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (FWCA) was enacted in 1934 and subsequently broadened 
and modified by amendments in 1946, 1958, and 1965. Sections of this Act deal specifically 
with wildlife resources in relation to Federal water resource development actions. FWCA 
recognizes the importance of wildlife resources and mandates that wildlife conservation shall 
receive equal consideration and treatment as other features of water resources development. 

8.2. State legislation 

8.2.1. Bahia Honda State Park 

The Bahia Honda State Park, established in 1968, is Florida's southernmost state park and 
comprises 635 acres of uplands and submerged lands (Florida, 1990). The northern boundary of 
the Park is in Florida Bay. Bahia Honda was part of the land holdings of the Florida East Coast 
Railroad until the company abandoned the line after the 1935 hurricane. The original train 
trestle can still be seen as part of the old Bahia Honda Bridge. The majority of the Park land 
was donated by Monroe County from 1961 to 1970, and the most recent parcel was purchased 
using Save Our Coast funds in 1983 and 1984. The Park has several biological communities 
including beach dune, coastal berm, mangrove forest, tropical hardwood hammock and 
submerged marine habitats. 

8.2.2. Lignumvitae Key State Botanical Park 

Lignumvitae Key State Park is a 280-acre island that was acquired by William Matheson in 
1919. The island supports many trees native to tropical forests. Lignumvitae Key is within 
Florida Bay. 


9. ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMS AND STUDIES 

A significant number of federal, state, municipal, academic and private organizations are 
currently involved in the South Florida Restoration Project which includes Florida Bay. A good 
indicator of current research efforts is the list of permits issued by the Everglades National 
Park for work in Florida Bay waters under the jurisdiction of the Park. These are listed in 
Table 15. Brief descriptions of previous and current research interests by these organizations 
are listed in this section. The information was compiled from various sources including the 
Interagency Spatial Data Workshop report (Anonymous, 1994). These descriptions should not be 
considered comprehensive. 


47 


Table 15. Permits issued by Everglades National Park for work in Florida Bay, 1989 - 1995 
[Everglades National Park, personal communication, 1995]. 


1989 - 1993 permits 


900048 


Arnold, W. S. 

Florida Marine Research 
Institute 

Morphological and genetic relationships 
among species groups of the genus 
Argopecten (Mollusca: Pectinidae) 

890024 


Bishof, DVRios, G. 

Florida Dept, of 
Environmental Regulation 

Aerojet Canal (C-111) monitoring Study to 
assess current conditions and continuing 
trends in the water quality of Barnes 

Sound and Manatee Bay area 

900020 


Bullock, L. 

Florida Marine Research 
Institute 

Life history data on jewfish, Epinephelus 
itajara 

930045, 

910006, 

920005, 

900006, 

Carlson, P. 

Florida Marine Research 
Institute 

Seagrass dieoff related studies 

890015 

930060 


Cohen, A. 

University of South 
Carolina 

Paleoecological and compositional 
investigations of the peat deposits of 
Southern Florida 

920042 


Cohen, A. 

University of South 
Carolina 

Effects of Hurricane Andrew on surficial 
peat accumulation in southeastern Florida. 
Implications relative to GCC and 
paleological history of region 

930058 


Colvocoresses, 
JVMcMichael, R. 

Florida Dept, of 
Environmental Protection 

Florida marine fisheries-independent 
monitoring program In Florida Bay 

920032 


Crabtree, R. 

Florida Marine Research 
Institute 

Research on the life history of bonefish 
Albula vulpes in south Florida 

920001, 

910002, 

Crabtree, R. 

Florida Marine Research 

Research on abundance, distribution, and 

900002, 

890006 


Institute 

life history of tarpon and bonefish in 

Florida 

890038 


Davis, W. P. 

EPA 

Distribution of the killifish mangrove 
rivulus (Rivulus marmoratus) 

930027, 

910005, 

920004, 

900005, 

Durako, M. 

Florida Marine Research 
Institute 

Seagrass dieoff study 

890014 

890035 


Enos, P. 

University of Kansas 

Porosity in carbonate sediments in Florida 
and the Bahamas 

920041 


Frewin, N. 

University of London 

The effects of Hurricane Andrew on the 
distribution of organic matter in the 
lagoonal swamp-marginal areas 

910021 


Frewin, N. 

University of London 

Source rock potential of shelf carbonates 

910017 


Ginsburg, R. 

University of Miami 

Mapping of the distribution of the mineral 
dolomite 

930015 


Glenister, B. 

University of Iowa 

Collected unconsolidated surface samples 
from Florida Bay. Macroscopic biota for 
education purposes 

930059 


Graves, G./Strom, 
D. 

Florida Dept, of 
Environmental Protection 

Mercury in estuarine fish. Water quality 
study 

920036 


Graves, G./Strom, 
D. 

Florida Dept, of 
Environmental Protection 

Identify and document the existing 
condition of the surface waters of the 
State. Document potential problem areas 
and establish ecoregion reference sites for 
comparison purposes 

920039 


Graves, G. 

Florida Dept, of 
Environmental Protection 

Analysis of tissue mercury concentrations 
(estaurine fish) 

930028a, 

Hanisak, D./Miller, 

Harbor Branch and UNC 

Nearshore seawater and macroalgal 

920038 


S. 

National underseas 
Rsearch Center 

dynamics in the Florida Keys 

930033, 

910034, 

920026, 

900039, 

Herrnkind, W. 

Florida State University 

Ecology and recruitment of spiny lobsters 
in Flonda Bay 

890026 


48 



Table 15. Permits issued by Everglades National Park for work in Florida Bay, 1989 - 1995 
[Everglades National Park, personal communication, 1995]. (cont.) 


1989 - 1993 permits 


890028 


Hesselman, D. 

Florida Dept, of Natural 
Resources 

Sampling and classification of shelifish 
harvesting waters 

910032, 

890020 

Holmquist, J. 

Florida State University 

Faunal utilization of a mobile habitat in a 
marine benthic community in Florida Bay 

930032 


Hopkins, T. 

University of Miami 

Determine the seasonal cycle of oreogenic 
enzymes and to see if habitat affects 
ureogenic abilities and stress levels in Gulf 
toadfish (Opsanus beta) 

900034 


Hoss, D. 

NOAA/NMFS 

Response of fish and shellfish to changes 
in composition and heterogeneity of 
habitats in western Florida Bay resulting 
from the dieoff of seagrasses 

920006, 

910007, 

Jones, R. 

Florida International 

Microbiological and water quality 

900007, 

890016 


University 

parameters associated with seagrass dieoff 

900028 


Lapointe, B. 

Florida Keys Land and Sea 
T rust 

Hydrologic and nutrient coupling between 
the Everglades and Florida Bay: the role of 
submarine groundwater discharge 

890030 


Lapointe, B. 

Florida Keys Land and Sea 
T rust 

Trophic baseline study 

890007 


Ley, J. 

University of Florida 

Use of edge habitat by fishes in northeast 
Florida Bay in the region south of C-111 
canal 

930038, 

920037 

Lindquist, N./Hay, 

M. 

University of North 
Carolina - NOAA/NURP 

The role of secondary metabolites in 
reducing invertebrate egg and larval 
mortality from predation and uv exposure 

900035 


Lipcius, R. 

William and Mary 

Test hypothesis that shelter availability 
limits spiny lobster abundance in habitats 
with expansive seagrass beds but little 
matural shelter 

920013 


Marelli, D./Arnold, 
W. 

Florida Marine Research 
Institute 

Investigate morphological and genetic 
relationships among putative subspecies 
of the genus Argopecten 

930054 


Markley, S./Hefty, 
L. 

METRO Dade 

Environmental Resources 
Management 

C-111/Taylor Slough water quality and 
biological monitoring 

920030, 

900040, 

910036, 

890030 

Mazzotti, F. 

University of Florida 

Crocodile nest monitoring 

920023 


McKee, K. 

Louisiana State University 

Interactions among nutrients, chemical, 
and structural defense, and herbivory in 
mangroves of South Florida 

930003, 


McMillen-Jackson, 

Flonda Marine Research 

Genetic stock identification of Florida 

920001 A 

A. 

Institute 

gamefish species: spotted seatrout 

930055 


Mealey, B. 

Miami Museum of Science 

Bald eagle DNA polymorphism in Florida 
Bay, Everglades National Park and tissue 
analysis of debilitated wading birds in 
Florida Bay for mercury concentrations 

930007 


Mealey, B. 

Miami Museum of Science 

Blood serum chemistry analysis of free 
ranging osprey nestlings in Florida Bay 

900023 


Oleinik, A. 

University of Miami 

Geologic record of mollusks in Florida Bay 

920002, 

900003, 

910003, 

890012 

Porter, D. 

University of Georgia 

Seagrass dieoff in Florida Bay 

890037 


Powell, G. 

National Audubon Society 

Quantitative analysis of small fish and 
invertebrates in the mangrove zones of 
Everglades National Park 

920033 


Reese, C. 

Florida International 
University 

Satellite remote sensing of seagrass 
abundance and algal blooms 


49 



Table 15. Permits issued by Everglades National Park for work in Florida Bay, 1989 - 1995 
[Everglades National Park, personal communication, 1995], (cont.) 


1989 - 1993 permits 


930041 

Richardson, 

Florida International 

Satellite remote sensing of seagrass 


L/Buisson, D. 

University 

abundance and algal blooms 

890032 

Roberts, D. 

Florida Marine Research 
Institute 

Genetic study of marine fish - red drum 

900027 

Schropp, S. 

Florida Dept, of 
Environmental Regulation 

Coastal pollution assessment program 

930044, 920035, 
910031 

Sheridan, P. 

NOAA/NMFS 

Define the macrofaunal and benthic 
community structure and function in 
healthy Thalassia testudinum habitats in 
Everglades National Park and compare 
dieoff areas. 

930046 

Shinn, E. 

USGS 

Eight (25-ft) cores drilled in Florida Bay to 
monitor water quality 

910033 

Snedaker, S. 

University of Miami 

Determining concentrations of registered 
and unregistered pesticides, polycyclic 
aromatic hydrocarbons, and aliphatic 
hydrocarbons in marine sessile feeders 

920045-47, 

920017-19, 

910012-14, 

900029-31 

Sprunt, A. 

National Audubon Society Florida Bay cooperative agreement 

930026, 920029, 
910040 

Stevely, J. 

University of Florida 

Survey of sponge community biomass in 
the Florida Keys 

930022 

Swart, P. 

University of Miami 

Analysis of climate records in coral 
skeleton 

910044 

Swart, P./Kramer, 
P. 

University of Miami 

The hydrology and geochemistry of 
Holocene mud islands in Florida Bay: 
implications for reflux and carbonate 
diagenesis 

930023, 910035 

Walter, L. 

University of Michigan 

Chemical and isotopic exchange among 
carbonate minerals, organic matter and 
seawater on modem carbonate platforms, 
Florida and Bahamas 

920027 

Webb, R. 

University of Florida 

Preliminary characterization of the branch 
and stem gall/canker disease etiology of 
red mangrove 

920003, 910004, 
900004, 890013 

Zieman, J. 

University of Virginia 

Seagrass dieoff related study 

1994 permits 

940022 

Bancroft, T. G. 

Audubon Society 

Small fish, invertebrates, algae, etc. 

940023 

Bancroft, T. G. 

Audubon Society 

Census of birds. Salvage dead birds. 

940052 

Barr, B. 

University of Miami 

Alligators stomach contents 

940004 

Bayless, J. 

University of Wisconsin 

Plants 

940061 

Bourrouilh, R. 

University of Bordeaux 
(France) 

Sediment cores and water samples 

940060 

Browder, J. 

NOAA/NMFS 

Pink Shrimp in WWB 

940036 

Buhnack, J. 

NOAA 

Fish for identification 

940036 

Buhnack, J. 

NOAA 

Fish for identification 

940064 

Craig, 1. 

Florida Dept, of 

Agriculture 

Slash pine cones and invertebrate pests, 
assess hurricane insect infestation 

940063 

Decker, F. 

The Nature Conservancy 

Benthic seagrass. Determine health of 
seagrass beds. 


50 



Table 15. Permits issued by Everglades National Park for work in Florida Bay, 1989 - 1995 
[Everglades National Park, personal communication, 1995]. (cont.) 


1994 permits 


940067 

Durako, M. 

Florida Marine Research 
Institute 

Seagrass die-off monitoring and fisheries 
habitat assessment. 

940002 

Fay, R 

Texas A & M University 

Oysters and sediment 

940017 

Federick, P. C. 

University of Florida 

Bird observation 

940001 

Gaines, M. S. 

University of Miami 

Sympatric rodents 

940058 

Gardner, W. 

NOAA/GLERL 

Nutrient and biotic 

940027 

Goldman, D. H. 

University of Texas 

Plants (orchids) 

940051 

Gottlieb, R. 

University of Florida 

Plant artist 

940031 

GYC, Inc. 

Surveyors 

Land surveying areas of Long Sound, etc. 

940007 

Halley, R. B. 

USGS 

Survey, no collection 

940038 

Halley, R. B. 

USGS 

Sediment cores and surface samples 

940038 

Halley, R. B. 

USGS 

Sediment cores and surface samples 

940066 

Hansen, M. 

USGS 

Placement of global positioning system on 
Lower Arsnicker Key. 

940028 

Henry,V. 

Georgia Southern 
University 

Lake Ingraham core 

940033 

Herrnkind, W. 

Florida State University 

Spiny lobster released 

940055 

Hitchock, G. L. 

University of Miami 

Seawater for nutrients 

940035 

Holtmeier, C. L. 

Cornell University 

Fish 

940035 

Holtmeier, C. L. 

Cornell University 

Fish 

940013 

Howard, F. W. 

University of Florida 

Mahogany seeds 

940025 

Hunt, 

J./Matheson, R. 

Florida Marine Research 
Institute 

Fish, crustaceans 

940026 

Hunt, 

J./Steidinger, K. 

Florida Marine Research 
Institute 

Water samples 

940040 

Hunt/Lyons, W. 

Florida Marine Research 
Institute 

Mollusks 

940040 

Hunt/Lyons, W. 

Florida Marine Research 
Institute 

Mollusks 

940032 

Klein, J. C. 

NOAA/NOS 

Review bathymetry aircraft 

940005 

Koptur, C. C. 

University of Miami 

Seeds of Ardisia 

940015 

Krysko, K. 

Florida International 
University 

Florida king snake and reptile road kills 

940016 

Lange, T. 

Florida Game and Fresh 
Water Comm. 

Fish 

940009 

Lavoie, D. 

Naval Research Laboratory 

Gravity piston cores 

940046 

Macauley, J. 

EPA 

Fish and benthic grabs 

940046 

Macauley, J. 

EPA 

Fish and benthic grabs 

940030 

Maguire, J. 

METRO Dade 

Environmental Resources 
Management 

Needles and buds of slash pines 

940057 

Mazzotti, F. 

University of Florida 

Nesting efforts of American crocodile 

940003 

Meshaka, W. 

Florida International 
University 

Reptiles, amphibians 

940019 

Miller, S. 

University of North 
Carolina 

Seaweeds 

940010 

Morrison, D. 

US Fish and Wildlife 

Service 

Racoon 

940065 

Morrison, D. 

US Fish and Wildlife 

Sen/ice 

Fish, water in treated effluent at Flamingo 
and sites in Shark River Slough 


51 



Table 15. Permits issued by Everglades National Park for work in Florida Bay, 1989 - 1995 
[Everglades National Park, personal communication, 1995]. (cont.) 


1994 permits 


940012 

O’Meara,G. F. 

University of Florida 

Exotic mosquitoes 

940048 

Pascarelia, J. B. 

University of Miami 

Fruits, seeds 

940048 

Pascarella, J. B. 

University of Miami 

Fruits, seeds 

940037 

Peck, S. 

Carelton University 
(Canada) 

Insects 

940037 

Peck, S. 

Carlton University 
(Canada) 

Insects 

940014 

Philips, E. J. 

University of Florida 

Water and phytoplankton 

940029 

Pimm, S./Curnutt, 
J. 

Quackenbush, L. 

S. 

University of Tennessee 

Seaside sparrow banding 

940047 

Florida International 
University 

Crustaceans 

940047 

Quackenbush, L. 

& 

Florida International 
University 

Crustaceans 

940041 

Rademacher, K. 

NOAA 

Reef fish 

940041 

Rademacher, K. 

NOAA 

Reef fish 

940024 

Rainboth, W. 

University of Wisconsin 

Plants, insects, fish 

940034 

Robblee, 

M./Anderson, G. 

NBS 

Monitoring stations 

940018 

Schaffer, B. 

University of Florida 

Pond apple fruit and seeds 

940062 

Scheidt, D. 

EPA 

Water, sediment, soil for mercury content. 

940053 

Sheridan, 
P./Thayer, G. 

NOAA 

Fish, seagrass, sediment 

940020 

Smith, S, 

Everglades National Park 

Road kills for skin preparation 

940008 

Smith, T. 

EPA 

Mangrove wood, leaves, crabs, etc. 

940011 

Sternberg, L. 

University of Miami 

Sawgrass 

940059 

Sturdy, L. 

Cooper City High School 

Soil, compare wetlands 

940039 

Sullivan, K. 

University of 

Miami/RSMAS 

Sponge, crustaceans 

940039 

Sullivan, K. 

University of Miami 

Sponge, crustaceans 

940044 

Swart, P./ Lutz, M. 

University of Miami 

Plant, water, sediment 

940043 

Swart, P./Healy, G. 

University of Miami 

Core from coral 

940043 

Swart, P./Healy, G. 

University of Miami 

Core from coral 

940045 

Swart, 

P./Keder/Kramer/ 

Lutz 

University of Miami 

Small corals 

940049 

Swart, P./Kramer, 

P. 

Swart, P./Kramer, 

P. 

Swart, P./Lutz, M. 

University of Miami 

Mud cores 

940049 

University of Miami 

Mud cores 

940044 

University of Miami 

Plant, water, sediment 

940045 

Swart/Keder/Kram University of Miami 
er/Lutz 

Small corals 

940021 

Taylor, H. L. 

Private research 

Rotifer fauna 

940050 

Twilley, R. 

University of 

Southwestern Louisiana 

Mangrove litter - WWB 

940050 

Twilley, R. 

University of 

Southwestern Louisiana 

Mangrove litter - WWB 

940054 

Wang, J. 

University of Miami 

Salinity, temperature, chlorophyll 

940042 

Wilson, S. 

Central Missouri State 
University 

Plant hoppers 


52 



Table 15. Permits issued by Everglades National Park for work in Florida Bay, 1989 - 1995 
[Everglades National Park, personal communication, 1995]. (cont.) 


1994 permits 

940042 

Wilson, S. 

Central Missouri State 
University 

Plant hoppers 

940068 

NA 

Florida Dept, of 
Environmental Protection 

Surveying benchmarks along main park 
road. 

1995 permits 

NA 

Browder, J. 

NOAA/NMFS 

An integrated study of pink shrimp as 
indicators of habitat health in Florida Bay 

NA 

Cantillo, A. 

NOAA/NOS 

Natural and anthropogenic events 
impacting Florida Bay: 1910 - 1993 timeline 

NA 

Canton, J. 

Florida State University 

Significance of submarine groundwater 
discharge on seagrass distribution, biomass 
and produtivity 

NA 

Carlson, P. 

Florida Marine Research 
Institute 

Mangrove mortality and die-back in Florida 
Bay 

NA 

Cohen, A. 

University of South 

Carolina 

Paleoecological and compositional 
investigations of the peat deposits of 
southern Florida 

NA 

Colvocoresses, J. 

Florida Marine Research 
Institute 

Florida marine fisheries - independent 
monitoring program 

NA 

Cross, F. 

NOAA/NMFS 

Habitat inventory and change in aquatic 
beds in Florida Bay 

NA 

Decker, F. 

The Nature Conservancy 

Health and location of seagrass beds in 
Florida Bay 

NA 

Decker, F. 

The Nature Conservancy 

Florida Bay Watch environmental 
monitoring program 

NA 

Doyle, L. 

University of South Florida 

Sedimentology of Florida Bay (joint project 
with Bourrouilh, University of Bordeaux, 
France) 

NA 

Durako, M. 

Florida Marine Research 
Institute 

Status and trends of vegetative fisheries 
habitats in Florida Bay 

NA 

Fay, R. 

Texas A&M University 

NOAA's Mussel Watch Program using 
oysters (Crassostrea virginica) in Florida 

Bay 

NA 

Fitterman, D. 

USGS 

Geophysical mapping and monitoring of 
saltwater intrusion, water quality, and 
fresh water discharge to Florida Bay 

NA 

Fourqurean, J. 

Florida International 
University 

Development of a hydrologic mass-balance 
model of Florida Bay 

NA 

Fourqurean, J. 

Florida International 
University 

Revisiting seagrass long-term monitoring 
stations around Cross Bank 

NA 

Galperin, B. 

University of South Florida 

The design of a modeling strategy for 
Florida Bay 

NA 

Gardner, W. 

NOAA/GLERL 

Nutrient dynamics and limitations in the 
water and sediments of Florida Bay 

NA 

Halley, R. 

USGS 

Coring and analyses of Florida Bay 
sediments 

NA 

Halley, R. 

USGS 

Sedimentation, sea-level rise, and 
circulation in Florida Bay 

NA 

Hansen, M. 

USGS 

Sea-floor sedimentation in Florida Bay 

NA 

Hefty, L. 

METRO Dade 

Environmental Resources 
Management 

C-111 and Taylor Slough water quality and 
biological monitoring program 


53 



Table 15. Permits issued by Everglades National Park for work in Florida Bay, 1989 - 1995 
[Everglades National Park, personal communication, 1995], (cont.) 


1995 permits 


NA 

Hermkind, W. 

Florida State University 

NA 

Hermkind, W. 

Florida State University 

NA 

Hitchcock, G. 

University of Miami 

NA 

Jones, R. 

Florida International 

NA 

Kramer, P. 

University 

University of Miami 

NA 

Ley, J. 

South Florida Water 

NA 

Lyons, W. 

Management District 
Flonda Marine Research 
Institute 

NA 

Macauley, J. 

EPA 

NA 

Matheson, R. 

Florida Marine Research 
Institute 

NA 

Maul, G. 

Florida Institute of 
Technology 

NA 

Mazzotti, F. 

University of Florida 

NA 

Nelsen, T. 

NOAA/AOML 

NA 

Ortner, P. 

NOAA/AOML 

NA 

Patino, E. 

USGS 


NA 

NA 

NA 


Patino, E. 
Philips, E. 

Robblee, M. 


U9GS 

University of Florida 

NBS 


The future of Florida spiny lobster: 
developing a predictive model and putting 
aritifical shelters to the acid test 
Estimation of juvenile spiny lobster 
recruitment in Florida Bay 
Conducting surface drifter observations to 
determine circulation and nutrient 
distribution in the coastal waters adjacent 
to Everglades National Park 
Florida Bay water quality monitoring 

The hydrology and geochemistry of 
Holocene mud-islands in Florida Bay: 
implications for reflux and carbonate 
diagenesis 

Prerestoration assessment of selected 
faunal components of the Florida Bay biota 
Benthic daunal communities in Florida Bay 

EPA EMAP: collection of sediment, fish, 
infaunal organisms and water for assessing 
contaminants in Florida Bay 
Prerestoration assessment of selected 
faunal communities in Florida Bay: 
predicting changes under differing water 
management regimes 
Regional research model of the Intra- 
Americas Seas for Florida Bay boundary 
conditions 

A monitoring program for the American 
crocodile in northeastern Florida Bay, ENP 
Restrospective analysis of the southern 
Everglades and the northern Florida Bay 
sediment record as an indicator of natural 
and anthropogenic influences and changes 
Zooplankton abundance and grazing 
potential in Florida Bay 
Fresh surface water discharge to the east 
coast 

Freshwater discharge to Florida Bay 

Blue-green algal blooms in Florida Bay: 
controlling factors and consequences for 
food webs 

Temporal and spatial variation in seagrass 
associated fish and inverterbates in 
western Florida Bay: a comparison with and 
without seagrass die-off in Johnson Key 
Basin 


NA 

Schmidt, T. 

Everglades National Park 

ENP creel census survey 

NA 

Scott, G. 

NOAA/NMFS 

Pesticide analysis of agricultural nonpoint 
source runoff into Flonda Bay 

NA 

Sheng, Y. 

University of Flonda 

A perliminary study on circulation 
dynamics in Florida Bay 


54 



Table 15. Permits issued by Everglades National Park for work in Florida Bay, 1989 - 1995 
[Everglades National Park, personal communication, 1995]. (cont.) 


1995 permits 


NA 

Sheridan, P. 

NOAA/NMFS 

Effects of increased freshwater delivery to 
Taylor Slough on fauna inhabiting 
seagrasses in receiving waters of Florida 

Bay 

NA 

Shinn, E. 

USGS 

Measurement and quality of tidally induced 
groundwater discharge in the Florida Keys 

NA 

Shinn, E. 

USGS 

Determination of groundwater-flow 
direction and rate beneath the Florida 

Keys and reef tract 

NA 

Smith, D. 

Everglades National Park 

Marine monitoring network of fixed 
stations in Shark Slough estuaries, Florida 
Bay, Manatee Bay, and Barnes Sound 

NA 

Smith, N. 

Harbour Branch 
Oceanographic Institution 

Tidal and nontidal processes in Florida Bay 

NA 

Snow, R. 

Everglades National Park 

The distribution and abundance of the 
Florida manatee in Florida Bay and the 
Upper Keys 

NA 

Steidinger, K. 

Florida Marine Research 
Institute 

Florida Bay microalgal blooms: composition, 
abundance, distribution and dynamic 
processes 

NA 

Stumpf, R. 

NA 

Remote sensing of water turbidity and 
sedimentation in Florida Bay 

NA 

Swain, E. 

USGS 

Hydrologic modeling review and 
assessment 

NA 

Swart, P. 

University of Miami 

Collection of scleractinian corals to assess 
the climatic and environmental variables of 
Florida Bay 

NA 

Thayer, G. 

NOAA/NMFS 

Response of fish and shellfish to changes 
in habitat in Florida Bay 

NA 

Wang, J. 

University of Miami 

A study to define data and model needs 
for a Florida Bay circulation model 

NA 

Wang, J. 

University of Miami 

Current patterns in western Florida Bay 

NA 

Wingard, G. 

USGS 

Ecosystem history of Florida Bay and the 
southwest coast 

NA 

Winkler, M. 

University of the West 
Indies 

Paleoecological studies in South Florida 

NA 

Zieman, J. 

University of Virginia 

Revisiting seagrass productivity stations 


NA - Not available. 


55 




9.1. Federal programs 

9.1.1. National Park Service 

The Everglades National Park is located on the southern tip of Florida and is part of the National 
Park Service (NPS). The park was authorized in 1934 and established in 1947. An excellent 
description of the Park can be found in the official guidebook (George, 1988). The Everglades is 
a low, flat region, mostly under water, which sustains a variety of habitats. The Everglades is 
also a river, about 6 in. deep, which originally flowed from Lake Okeechobee, more than 100 
miles north in central Florida, into Florida Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. Drainage canals 
constructed after the turn of the century changed both the rate and direction of freshwater 
outflow. The coastal ecosystem of the Everglades is composed of a variety of habitats: Florida 
Bay; the coastal prairie; the vast mangrove forest and its waterways; cypress swamps; the 
true everglades, the extensive freshwater marsh dotted with tree islands and occasional 
ponds; and the driest zone, the pine-and-hammock rockland. Underlying the entire Park is 
porous limestone covered by a thin mantle of marl and peat which provides soil for rooting 
plants. The Everglades fauna and flora are a blend of tropical species, most of which migrated 
from the Caribbean islands, and species from the Temperate Zone, which embraces all of 
Florida. These species have adapted to the region's peculiar cycles of flood, drought, and fire. 
The coastal mangrove forests, traversed by thousands of estuarine channels and containing 
numerous bays and sounds, are extremely productive biologically. On the west side of the Park 
is the Flamingo Visitor Center, located on Cape Sable. Whitewater Bay is located between Cape 
Sable and the mainland Everglades. An ecological study of the Cape Sable-Whitewater Bay 
ecosystem can be found in Tabb and Dubrow (1962) and Tabb and Manning (1962). The Park was 
designated an International Biosphere Reserve in 1976; World Heritage Site in 1979; National 
Trails Designation in 1981; and a Wetland of International Significance in 1987. The Everglades 
Expansion Act added 107,600 acres to the Park in 1989. Chekika was added to the Park in 
1991. Currently its total acreage is approximately 1,500,000 acres, including land and water. 

Robblee et al. (1989) compiled quantitative observations on salinity within Florida Bay since 
1936 from 29 published and unpublished studies and analyzed these data to characterize typical 
salinity conditions and determine long-term temporal and spatial changes that may occur within 
this estuary. Multiple spatially distributed observations within a given year were not available 
until 1957. A total of 6,231 records were available for this analysis. During all but unusually 
high rainfall years, evaporation exceeds upland runoff into Florida Bay and hypersaline 
conditions (>35 °/oo) prevail throughout most of the main body of the Bay. Annual monthly 
average salinity observations exceeded 35 °/oo within one or more areas of the Bay 12 out of 
the 17 yrs for which data was available since 1956. One or more areas of the Bay have 
exceeded 35 °/oo during at least one month every year for which sufficient spatial and 
temporal data were available. The highest salinity conditions consistently occurred within the 
central basins lying between the Whipray-Buttonwood Keys on the west and Captains, Russell 
and Black Betsy Keys to the east. Lowest salinities consistently occurred within the upper 
northeast reaches including Little Madeira and Joe Bays. An increasing salinity gradient 
consistently occurred from the upper Nest Key basin eastward into Blackwater Sound 
suggesting the major region of upland runoff lies between Little Madeira and Joe Bays. Seasonal 
dynamics of salinity conditions within the Bay were tied to the distinct seasonal rainfall 
conditions of south Florida although considerable annual variability has occurred in the specific 
month of maximum and minimum salinity. Lowest concentrations have typically occurred during 
the late summer or fall months while highest salinities occur during late spring. Seasonal and 
annual variability in concentrations were greatest within the northeastern region of the Bay. 
Within year ranges of monthly mean values as great as 52 %x> have been recorded within Little 
Madeira Bay. High concentrations occurring in late spring were often rapidly diluted following 


56 


Table 16. Everglades National Park Marine Monitoring Network stations 


Station 

Station name 

Latitude (N) 

Longitude (W) 

Start date 

BA 

Bob Allen Key 

25° I' 33' 

80° 40' 55' 

4/88 

BK 

Buoy Key 

25° 7' 15' 

80° 50' 2' 

4/88 

BN 

Butternut Key 

25° 5' 8' 

80° 31' 6' 

3/88 

BR 

Broad River 

25° 28" 40' 

80° 59' 23' 

1 / 9 0 

BS 

Blackwater Sound 

25° 10‘ 42' 

80° 26' 18' 

9/9 1 

CN 

Cane Patch 

25° 25' 18' 

80° 56' 33' 

1 / 9 0 

DK 

Suck Key 

25° 10" 46' 

80° 29' 23' 

4/88 

PC 

Highway Creek 

25° 15' 14' 

80° 26' 41' 

4/88 

JB 

Joe Bay 

25° 13" 26’ 

80° 32' 29' 

4/88 

JK 

Johnson Key 

25° 3* r 

80° 54' 13' 

3/88 

LB 

Little Blackwater Sound 

25° 12' 48' 

80° 26' O' 

9/9 1 

LM 

Little Madeira 

25° 10' 31' 

80° 37' 56' 

3/88 

LFt 

Little Rabbit Key 

24° 58' 52' 

80° 49' 33' 

4/88 

LS 

Long Sound 

25° 14' 5' 

80° 27" 27' 

3/88 

MK 

Murray Key 

25° 6' 20' 

80° 56' 32' 

4/88 

NR 

North River 

25° 20' 23' 

80° 54' 41* 

2/90 

PK 

Peterson Key 

24° 55" 5' 

80° 44' 46' 

3/88 

TB 

Terrapin Bay 

25° 9' 36' 

80° 43' 30' 

9/9 1 

TC 

Trout Cove 

25° 12' 44' 

80° 32' 1' 

3/88 

TR 

Taylor River 

25° 13' 28' 

80° 39" 11' 

3/88 

WB 

Whipray Basin 

25° 4' 41' 

80° 43' 39' 

3/88 


the onset of the rainy season within this upper Bay region. Consistent temporal data upon which 
to evaluate long-term changes in environmental conditions at any given location were limited. 
Strong evidence for long-term changes, given the high annual variability in conditions, was 
lacking. 

9.1.1.1. Inventorying and Monitoring Program 

Hydrological data are collected at the ENP. These data are used to assess the current 
hydrological conditions within the Park and are incorporated in hydrological models. Marine 
monitoring sites have also been established in Florida Bay and the Gulf coast estuaries. The ENP 
Marine Monitoring Network (MMN) currently occupies 21 stations within the Park, 18 in 
Florida Bay and 3 in the Shark Slough estuary. Twelve additional stations were added in early 
1994. Other stations operated in cooperation with the South Florida Water Management District 
(SFWMD) are located in Barnes Sound, Manatee Bay, and Joe Bay. The locations of the stations, 
and duration of operation are listed in Table 16. Data parameters collected are conductivity, 
water depth, precipitation and temperature. Parameters varied with station. Biological 
monitoring of the distribution and abundance of wildlife and fish is also carried out. The data is 
shared and integrated with that collected by other agencies such as the USGS, the SFWMD, and 

the US Army Corp of Engineers (COE). A 


^ D. Busch, Everglades National Park, 40001 State Rd. 9336, Homestead, FL 33034-6733. 305 242 7800. 


57 





9.1.1.2. Everglades National Park GIS Program 


The Everglades National Park GIS (EVER GIS) is working with researchers and resource 
managers to develop Global Information System (GIS) data themes useful for ecosystem 
restoration and management of the Park. Data themes representing all aspects of the natural 
environment are contained in the GIS or are planned for the future. The data themes in the GIS 
cover a wide range of areas, scales and subjects. The availability of these themes varies. 
Current databases include distribution of foraging wading birds, deer, alligator nests, Cape 
Sable seaside sparrows, Florida panthers, manatees, and fires. Hydrological researchers are 
developing data themes representing actual and modeled water levels and depths. USGS 
1:24,000 quad data have been digitized for all of the south Florida park areas. Detailed 
vegetation maps for both before and after Hurricane Andrew are currently being developed 
using aerial photographs. A Florida Bay bathymetry map is nearing completion. The locations of 
all of the Park's physical monitoring stations are in the GIS. 

9.1.2. US Army Corps of Engineers 

The US Army COE has the responsibility of construction and maintenance of the system of 
canals in South Florida. 

9.1.2.1. Water Management Decision Support System 

The Water Management Decision Support System* of the Water Management and Meteorology 
Section monitors and regulates COE structures throughout the Central and Southern Florida 
project. Hydrologic and meteorological data is collected, processed, analyzed, and stored. The 
data includes water surface elevations, stream stages, reservoir elevations, and cumulative 
precipitation. The Section supports numerous Data Collection Platforms (DCP) installed at 
remote gaging stations which measure real-time data including water surface elevations, 
stream stages, reservoir elevations, and cumulative precipitation. The USGS maintains the 
DCP's and collects the data via the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES). 

9.1.2.2. Hydrographic and Topographic Surveys 

The Survey Branch, Engineering Division, conducts hydrographic and topographic survey of 
Corps of Engineers Projects throughout the Central and Southern Florida project. Both 
historical and current data is maintained in digital format.^ 

9.1.3. Environmental Protection Agency 

9.1.3.1. Everglades Mercury Study 

The Everglades Mercury Study (REMAP) of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is 
designed to determine the extent and magnitude of Hg contamination in the Everglades 
ecosystem. It is an integral part of a larger interagency effort that is using ecological risk 
assessment as the organizing framework to evaluate critical mercury sources and pathways 
through the ecosystem and asses the relative risk to various biological components, including 
any relationship of eutrophication to Hg methylation. A probability-based random sampling grid 
is being used to obtain consistent estimates of Hg contamination over the 9600 km 2 area. Two 


D. Buker, Everglades National Park, 40001 State Rd. 9336, Homestead, FL 33034-6733. 305 242 7800. 

K. Jones or S. Bullock, CESAJ-EN-HW, Jacksonville District Corps of Engineers, PO BOX 4970, Jacksonville, FL 32233-0019. 
904 232 1786 or 1185. 

^ H. W. Rimmer, CESAJ-EN-S, Jacksonville District Corps of Engineers, PO BOX 4970, Jacksonville, FL 32233-0019. 904 232 
1606. 


58 



hundred canal sampling locations were selected as probability samples by associating grid 
points on the sampling frame with specific canal sections for independent sampling cycles. Of 
this number, 50 locations are randomly selected for sampling during alternate wet and dry 
seasons through spring 1995. Water, sediment and fish are sampled and analyzed for ultra 
trace level total and methyl Hg. Additional water quality measurements include temperature, 
turbidity, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, pH, dissolved organic carbon, total phosphate, and 
other parameters. A similar effort to obtain a random sample of the greater marsh, including 
all habitats, began in 1995 on 179 sites per cycle, where water, three soil horizons, and biota 
will be sampled. Additional cycles are dependent on funding. Water, soil (3 horizons), and fish 
are being sampled along four marsh transects located across nutrient gradients during wet and 
dry seasons. Water at seven structures is being monitored bi-weekly for one year for total and 
methyl Hg to develop a time series. This is only part of a comprehensive ecological risk 
assessment of Hg. + 

9.1.3.2. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program - Estuaries 

One hundred forty two sites in the West Indian Province (Anclote Anchorage around to the 
mouth of the Indian River Lagoon) will be sampled in 1995 - 1996 as part of the EPA 
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program - Estuaries (EMAP-E). Sampling will include 
triplicate benthic community analyses, fish trawls, water quality measurements, sediment 
chemistry, tissue residual analysis, and eutrophication measurements. These data are a part of 
the continuing development of the EMAP-Estuaries Program throughout the country. The data 
for south Florida will include the following measurements at 142 sites during quality 
measurements: instantaneous salinity, temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, and light 
penetration (relative light and Secchi), and 24-hr continuous measurements of salinity, 
temperature, depth, pH, and dissolved oxygen (a random 24-hr segment during the sampling 
period). Chemical water column measurements include nutrient analyses. Chemical sediment 
measurements include percent silt/clay, grain size, acid volatile sulfide concentration, 
analysis for 125 contaminants [polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated 
biphenyls (PCBs), pesticides, heavy metals, butyltins), and sediment toxicity (10-day, acute 
Ampelisca bioassay and 1-day Microtox bioassay). Chemical biota measurements include tissue 
residues from the fillets of selected target species and tailmeat from shrimp for about 75 
contaminants, and selected biomarkers of fish health condition (e.g., DNA adducts, EROD, AHH, 
vitellogenin). Biological measurements include collection of triplicate benthic community 
samples, duplicate fish trawls or traps, chlorophyll, and presence and condition of submerged 
aquatic vegetation. All data collected are stored in the EMAP-E Information Management 

System. A 

9.1.3.3. Florida Keys Water Quality Protection Program 

The Florida Keys Water Quality Protection Program monitoring objectives are to (1) monitor 
the status and trends of water quality parameters throughout the Florida Keys National Marine 
Sanctuary (FKNMS), and (2) monitor the status and trends of biological resources such as coral 
reefs, hard bottom areas, and seagrass beds, potentially affected by water quality problems. 
The FKMS is stratified into nine segments. Water quality and seagrass communities will be 
monitored using a stratified random design based on the segmentation framework. The 
seagrass, coral reef/hardbottom, and water quality monitoring programs will determine 
spatial and temporal variability, with the focus being water quality as it affects resources. 


+ J. Stober or D. Scheidt, USEPA, Environmental Services Division, Colleae Station Rd., Athens, GA 30613. 706 546 2207. 

A K. Summers or J. Macauley, USEPA, EMAP-Estuaries, 1 Sabine Island Dr., Gulf Breeze, FL 32561. 904 934 9244 (Summers). 
904 934 9353 (Macauley). 


59 



This Program is a joint effort by EPA and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection 
(FDEP).* 

9.1.3.4. Toxics Release Inventory System 

The Toxics Release Inventory System (TRIS) is an EPA Superfund database that contains 
information on storage, use and release of 300 toxic and hazardous substances. 

9.1.3.5. Research File 3 

Research File 3 (RF3) is a national hydrographic database that interconnects and identifies 3.5 
million stream segments that comprise the nation's surface water drainage system. 

9.1.3.6. Waterbody System 

The Waterbody System (WBS) is a database that houses the monitoring and assessment data 
provided by states in 305b water quality assessments. Florida is a full participant in WBS. 

9.1.3.7. Permit Compliance System 

The Permit Compliance System (PCS) is a national database of all NPDES permits. 

9.1.3.8. North American Landscape Characterization 

The Global Change Research Program North American Landscape Characterization (NALC) is 
working with the EROS Data Center to develop MSS triplicate covering the entire continent. 
Triplicates are matched Landsat MSS scenes from the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. EPA has 
requested high priority on the development of South Florida scenes. 

9.1.3.9. Gulf of Mexico Program 

This major geographic initiative is cooperating with EPA Region 4 on South Florida planning and 
monitoring. 

9.1.3.10. STORET 

STORET is the major national EPA database that contains station locations and measurements of 
many water quality parameters. 

9.1.3.11. CERCLIS/RCRIS 

These information systems contain all reported occurrences of active and abandoned waste 
sites, including highest priority Superfund sites. 

9.1.3.12. Facility Index System 

The Facility Index System (FINDS) is a database of cross referenced file showing EPA 
identification codes for regulated facilities. 


F. McManus, USEPA, 345 Courtland St., NE, Atlanta, GA 30365. 404 347 1 797. P. Mathews, Florida Department of 
Environmental Protection, 3900 Commonwealth Blvd., Tallahassee, FL 32399-3000. 904 488 4892. 


60 



9.1.3.13. Taxonomic File 


The Taxonomic File is a database, under development, based on the NOAA National 
Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) taxonomic codes. 

9.1.3.14. Gateway/ENVIROFACTS Information Management System 

This relational data management system encompasses several other EPA databases. It has been 
pilot tested in the Great Lakes and in southeastern Virginia, and a proposal for a South Florida 
information system is in preparation by EPA's Office of Information Resources Management. 

9.1.3.15. Research and development 

EPA's Office of Research and Development is preparing proposals involving remote sensing as 
applied to Florida Bay issues in coordination with the EPA Office of Water. 

9.1.3.16. Spatial Data Clearinghouse 

EPA's Spatial Data Clearinghouse provides access to various types of spatial data in ARC/INFO 
export format. These data enable users of perform analytical functions through the use of a 
geographic information system. Many systems and tools being built by EPA will utilize the data 
in the Clearinghouse. 

9.1.4. US Fish and Wildlife Service 

9.1.4.1. National Wetlands Inventory 

The National Wetlands Inventory (NWI) of the US Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) develops and 
disseminates biologically sound scientific information on the characteristics and extent of the 
Nation's wetland resources. Data are supplied to policy makers, planners, land managers, and 
the public for the purpose of making informed decisions affecting the wise use and management 
of wetland resources. To accomplish this, two types of information are gathered: (1) detailed 
wetlands maps, and (2) status and trends reports. NWI has produced wetlands maps for the 
entire state of Florida at the scale of 1:24,000 using NAPP photography. Wetlands maps 
portray point, line, and area features overlaid on a USGS 7.5-min topographic map. All wetland 
features discernible by the photointerpreter are delineated. Wetlands are classified using the 
Cowardin wetlands classification system and delineated using protocols and conventions 
developed by NWI. NWI also compiles information on the status and trends of the Nation's 
wetlands. These comprehensive data are prepared as a Report to Congress on a 10-yr cycle. 
The most current report covers wetlands status and trends through the mid-1980's. NWI has 
developed the following collateral data sources to assist in the mapping of wetlands nation¬ 
wide: National List of Plant Species That Occur in Wetlands (currently contains over 6,600 
plant species); Hvdric Soils of the United States (with Soil Conservation Service); conventions 
for photointerpretation, cartographic design, and digitizing; and a wetlands values database 
comprising over 15,000 bibliographic records describing functions and values of wetlands.^ 

9.1.4.2. Wetland Status and Trends 

The NWI Wetland Status and Trends, a wetland status and trends study, is responsible for 
monitoring the current status and recent trends in wetland acreage for the Nation. The 
overriding objective of this study is to produce comprehensive statistically valid acreage 
estimates of the Nation's wetlands. There are three components to the status and trends 


* D. Woodard, NWI, 9720 Executive Center Drive, Suite 101, Monroe Building, St. Petersburg, Florida 33702. 813 570-5412. 


61 





operations. These include monitoring the wetlands by periodically updating a random sample of 
3650 4-sq mi sample plots. This is done with the use of aerial photography to measure land 
changes over time. In addition, the Fish and Wildlife Service has determined additional 

information is needed to assess wetland acreage trends in key regions of the country. More 
accurate regionalized trend data are being produced for the Gulf and Atlantic coastal flats, the 
Great Lakes watershed, the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Plain, and the Prairie Pothole Region. 
Specialized study areas or ’Hot Spots' of wetland loss are further identified. These are areas 

where wetland changes can be detected and analyzed for discrete geographical units (usually 

counties). Collier County is currently being studied. There are a number of crosscutting tasks 
relating to status and trends work. Some of these tasks include: developing projection 

methodologies and modeling; database development and maintenance; GIS development; 
remotely sensed image acquisition and analysis; USGS topographic maps; NOAA charts; soil 
surveys; and other data.^ 

9.1.4.3. Ecological Services 

Although the Ecological Services Vero Beach Field Office does not generate large amounts of 
data, the organization uses existing data to document distribution of wildlife, produce simple 
habitat use models for wildlife, review impact of proposed development or restoration projects 
on species of wildlife and ecosystems in general. A variety of derived data that vary in 
precision is used. Species distribution/habitat use models are probabilistic in nature and their 
use to predict impact is dependent on sampling methodology, scope of search, precision of 
measurements, and biology of the species.^ 

9.1.5. National Biological Survey 

Land cover maps are being created statewide by the National Biological Survey (NBS) Florida 
Biological Diversity Project to serve as a base for modeling potential habitat and species- 
richness of terrestrial vertebrates and butterflies. The spatially-explicit species-richness 
coverages are being compared to coverages of lands owned for conservation purposes to locate 
gaps in biodiversity protection. Land cover is being mapped from classification of Landsat 
satellite imagery at 30 m resolution. The hierarchical classification scheme is a modification of 
the Florida Natural Areas Inventory (FNAI) scheme. Faunal distributions and habitat 
associations are being compiled from museum records, literature, and expert consultation. 
Spatial GIS models of potential habitat of each species are being constructed and will be used in 
overlays to generate maps of species richness. Spatial resolution of the faunal maps will vary 
depending on the appropriate scale for the individual species.* 

9.1.6. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

9.1.6.1. National Ocean Service 

9.1.6.1.1. Tide gauges 

The tide station locations in Florida Bay were retrieved from the Tides Automated Login and 
Retrieval System (TALARS) and are listed in Table 17 (M. Gibson, NOAA/NOS, Silver Spring, 
MD, personal communication, 1994). Some historic sites have not been listed yet in TALARS. 
The data typically available for these stations are: times and heights of high and low tides, 
hourly heights, 6-min heights, summary information (monthly tidal extremes and other 


^ T. E. Dahl, US Fish and Wildlife Service, 9720 Executive Center Dr., Ste 101, St. Petersburg, FL 33702. 

A R. Pace, USFWS, P.O. Box 2676, Vero Beach, FL 32962. 407 562 3909. 

L. Pearlstine, Florida Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, P.O. Box 110450, Gainesville, FL 32611-0450. 904 392 
1861. 


62 



statistics), bench marks sheet of tide data, time series plots, harmonic analysis, tidal 
predictions, daily and monthly sea surface water temperature and density, frequency and 
duration of inundation of high and low water, and daily mean sea level. Tide data can be obtained 
from the NOAA/National Ocean Service (NOS)/Tidal Datum Quality Assurance Branch. A 

9.1.6.1.2. National Status and Trends Program 

NOAA's National Status and Trends (NS&T) Program^ assesses the current status of, and 
changes over time in the environmental health of the estuarine and coastal waters of the United 
States, including Alaska and Hawaii. The NS&T Program consists of seven major component 
projects: National Benthic Surveillance, Mussel Watch, Bioeffects Surveys, Coastal 
Contaminant Assessments, Historical Trends Assessments, Specimen Banking, and Quality 
Assurance (QA). NS&T data can be found in various publications, including NOAA (1988, 1989, 
and 1991b) and on the NOAA Internet home page. Concentrations of organic and inorganic 
contaminants in sediments and mollusks taken in the same area are determined as part of the 
Mussel Watch Project at sites located around the nation. The analytes include 24 PAHs, 20 PCB 
congeners, DDT and its metabolites, 9 other chlorinated pesticides, organotins, 4 major 
elements, and 12 trace elements. NS&T Program sampling and analytical methods, and the list 
of analytes are described in Lauenstein and Cantillo (1993). NS&T sampling sites are described 
in Lauenstein et al. (1993). The quality of the NS&T analytical data is overseen by the QA 
Project, which is designed to assure and document the quality of the data, to document sampling 
protocols and analytical procedures, and to reduce intralaboratory and interlaboratory 
variation. The QA Project description can be found in Cantillo and Lauenstein (1993). 

Five NS&T Mussel Watch sites are located in South Florida and one in the Florida Keys (Table 
17). In order to evaluate the impact on Florida Bay of the restoration project in the Everglades, 
two new Mussel Watch sites were established in 1994. These are located at Flamingo and in 
Blackwater Sound. At these NS&T sites, either the American oyster (Crassostrea virginica) or 
the smooth-edged jewel box (Chama sinuosa) are collected during the winter months prior to 
spawning. Two organizations have been responsible for all sample collection and analysis of 
samples from South Florida: Texas A&M University (TAMU) Geochemical and Environmental 
Research Group (GERG) for the Gulf Coast and Florida Keys, and Battelle Ocean Sciences for the 
Atlantic Coast. The NS&T data for the South Florida sites is listed in Cantillo et al. (1993), 
NOAA (1988, 1989, and 1991b) and Cantillo et al. (1995). An NS&T Bioeffects Survey of 
Biscayne Bay in cooperation with the NOAA Coastal Ocean Program and the State of Florida is 
being planned. The survey will include sediment toxicity, fish reproduction, genetic damage, 
and other studies. The NS&T Program will also conduct a joint monitoring survey of the benthos 
in Florida Bay and the region to the west with the EPA EMAP-E. Samples of macrobenthos will 
be collected at 50-100 sites in Florida Bay and the adjacent waters out to a line between Naples 
and Key West. The number of species and individuals of each species will be used to calculate a 
Benthic Index of the health of the benthic community and to obtain baseline information on the 
composition and biodiversity of the macrobenthic community of this region. Sampling is planned 
for the summer 1994. 


A NOAA/NOS/Tidal Datum Quality Assurance Branch, 1305 East West Hwy., rm. 7606, Silver Spring, MD 20910. 301 713 
2877. 

0 t O'Connor, NOAA National Status and Trends Program Office, NOAA/NOS/ORCA21, 1305 East West Hwy., 10614, Silver 
Spring, MD 10910. 301 713 3028. 


63 



Table 17. Tide station locations in Florida Bay and the Keys from the Tides Automated Login and 
Retrieval System (Information listed in the database in early 1994. More stations could be in 
operation.). 


Station 

Station 

Latitude 

Longitude 

Installation 

Removal 

number 

name 

(N) 

(W) 

date 

date 

8723644 

Flamingo 

25° 8.5' 

o 

O 

GO 

55.4' 

1964 

1965 

8723646 

Blackwater Sound 

25° 8.4' 

00 

o 

o 

24.2 

1974 

1974 

8723655 

Tarpon Basin 

25° 8.4' 

o 

o 

GO 

26.3' 

1934 

1934 

8723668 

Sever 

25° 6.5' 

OD 

O 

o 

29.3' 

1934 

1 934 

8723678 

Sunset Cove 

25° 5.7' 

o 

O 

GO 

26.6' 

1975 

1 975 

8723721 

Adobe Casa 

25° 2.1* 

o 

O 

CO 

30.3' 

1975 

1975 

8723741 

Tavernier 

25° 0.9' 

o 

O 

GO 

30.9' 

1970 

1975 

8723746 

Crane Key 

25° 0.3' 

o 

O 

CO 

37.1' 

1975 

1975 

8723752 

Plantation Key 

25° 0.1' 

0 

o 

co 

32.6' 

1975 

1975 

8723752 

East Key 

24° 59.8' 

o 

o 

co 

36.6' 

1975 

1975 

8723776 

Plantation Key 

24° 57.9' 

o 

o 

oo 

34.1' 

1 975 

1 975 

8723807 

Shell Key 

24° 55.4' 

00 

o 

o 

40.3' 

1975 

1975 

8723808 

Upper Matecumber Key24° 55.5' 

o 

o 

co 

37.9' 

1971 

1973 

8723812 

Shell Key 

24° 54.8' 

o 

O 

co 

39.6' 

1975 

1975 

8723824 

Lignumvitae Key East 

24° 54.2' 

0 

o 

co 

41.7' 

1 975 

1975 

8723825 

Lignumvitae Key West 

24° 54.0' 

o 

O 

co 

42.3' 

1975 

1975 

8723836 

Nine Mile Pt. 

24° 53.1' 

o 

O 

co 

47.3' 

1935 

1935 

8723838 

East Horseneck Shoal 

24° 53.0' 

o 

O 

co 

51.8' 

1935 

1 935 

8723852 

Lower Matecumbe Key 24° 51.9' 

o 

O 

co 

43.0' 

1970 

1975 

8723853 

Middle Shoal 

24° 51.8’ 

0D 

O 

0 

57.0' 

1935 

1935 

8723873 

Long Key 

24° 50.3' 

00 

O 

0 

47.9* 

1975 

1975 

8723889 

S. Horseneck Shoal 

24° 48.8' 

oo 

O 

o 

0.8* 

1935 

1935 

8723921 

Grassy Key 

24° 46.3' 

o 

O 

00 

56.4' 

1970 

1 975 

8723931 

John Sawyer Bank 

24° 45.5' 

81° 

6.5' 

1935 

1 935 

8723970 

Vaca Key 

24° 42.7' 

81° 

6.3' 

1 970 

Present 

8724033 

Pigeon Key 

24° 42.3' 

81° 

9.4' 

1973 

1974 

8724176 

Johnson Key 

24° 45.7' 

81° 

19.7' 

1936 

1936 


64 




Table 18. NS&T Mussel Watch Project sampling sites in South Florida and the Florida Keys. 


Site 

Main 

Site 

Latitude 

Longitude 

Species 

Years 


location 

code 

(N) 

(W) 

collected 

of data* 

Mussel Watch 

PLQject 






North Miami 

Maule Lake 

NMML 

25° 56.13' 

80° 08.77' 

CV 

6 

Biscayne Bay 

Goulds Canal 

BBGC 

25° 31.39' 

80° 18.85' 

CV 

4 

Biscayne Bay 

Princeton Canal 

BBPC 

25° 31.13' 

80° 19.75' 

CV 

2 

Florida Keys 

Bahia Honda Key 

BHKF 

24° 39.52' 

81° 16.43' 

CS 

2 

Florida Bay 

Joe Bay 

FBJB 

25° 1 2.53' 

80° 32.0' 

CV 

1 

Florida Bay 

Flamingo Bay 

FBFO 

25°8.27' 

80° 55.25' 

CV 

1 

Everglades 

Faka Union Bay 

EVFU 

25° 54.08' 

81° 30.78' 

CV 

8 

Rookery Bay 

Henderson Creek 

RBHC 

26° 1.50' 

81° 44.20' 

CV 

9 

Naples Bay 

Naples Bay 

NBNB 

26° 6.85’ 

81° 47.20* 

CV 

8 


CV - Crassostrea virginica (American oyster). CS - Chama sinuosa (Smooth-edged jewel box). 
* Years of data available as of this writing. 


9.1.6.1.3. National Marine Sanctuaries 

The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS) was established in 1990 under this Act 
and implemented in 1994. The Sanctuary extends from Card Sound to the Dry Tortugas and 
covers both sides of the Florida Reef Track. The Florida Keys encompass the 345-km long 
Florida Reef Track, the only living tropical coral reef along the mainland United States. There 
are three National Marine Sanctuaries established and managed by NOAA along the reef track: 
the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, the Key Largo National Marine Sanctuary, and the 
Looe Key National Marine Sanctuary. There are also other sanctuaries in the area such as the 
National Key Deer Refuge, the John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park, the Great White Heron 
National Wildlife Refuge, and the Key West National Wildlife Refuge. The ecosystem on the 
northern side of the Reef is similar to that of Florida Bay and the shore lines are characterized 
by mangrove communities. Urban development has resulted in riprap and gravel beaches, rocky 
shores, and seawalls. There are few sand beaches in the Florida Keys. The coral species most 
abundant in the Florida Reef Track are Montastrea annularis, M. cavernosa, Acropora palmata, 
A. cervicornis, Diploria spp., Siderastrea siderea, and Colpophyllia spp. Many of these species 
have been affected by coral bleaching, and white band and black band disease. Also, cold water 
resulting from the passage, in recent years, of severe cold fronts from Florida Bay across the 
reefs has stressed or killed many corals. The ecosystem has been impacted by excessive 
amounts of nutrients from Florida Bay and non-point sources, the effects of over development 
of the Keys, and of damage by large vessels such as ship groundings and minor oil spills. There 
are a number of mechanisms transporting water within the Keys (Schomer and Drew, 1982). 
These include oceanic currents, evaporation processes, tides, winds, freshwater flow (from 
land runoff and rainfall), and catastrophic climatological events such as hurricanes. Salinities 
are variable but are approximately 36 %o. 

A total of 30 stations have or will be established to monitor water temperature along the 
Florida Keys reef tract and along the Florida Bay side of the Keys. Most of these stations were 
established in 1990 and include thermographs deployed within 30 cm of the seabed at each 


65 





location. Instruments are programmed to record at 2-hr intervals and operate 530 days. Units 
are retrieved annually. A 

9.1.6.2. National Marine Fisheries Service 

9.1.6.2.1. Coastal Change Analysis Program 

The NOAA/National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Coastal Change Analysis Program (C- 

CAP) is developing a nationally standardized database on land cover and habitat change in the 

coastal regions of the US. C-CAP inventories coastal submersed habitats, wetland habitats and 

adjacent uplands and monitors changes in these habitats on a 1- to 5-yr cycle. 1992 aerial 

photography of Florida Bay (co-funded with the Florida Department of Environmental 

Protection) consists of 389 color photos at a scale of 1:48,000. All photographs not negatively 

affected by turbidity are currently being interpreted by personnel at Florida International 

University (FIU). The data will be digitized and serve as a basis for future change detection 

efforts. Beginning in the fall of 1994, six LANDSAT Thematic Mapper (TM) scenes from 

1992/93 (Path 15, rows 41 - 43 and Path 16, rows 41-43) were analyzed to determine the 

location and extent of emergent wetlands and surrounding uplands. This data will also serve as 

a basis for future change detection efforts. C-CAP uses an assortment of digital and analog 

products as ancillary data sources. They include, but are not limited to: NOAA nautical charts 

and shoreline manuscripts, NWI maps, USGS 7.5-min quads, TIGER files, soils maps, timber 

surveys and digital elevation models. The information is from a variety of federal, state, local 

* 

governments and private entities. 

9.1.6.2.2. Fisheries Statistical Data Collection 

Seven federal fishery management plans involve fishery species found in Florida Bay. The 
NOAA/NMFS Southeast Fisheries Science Center^ (SEFSC) is responsible for management of 
these species under the Plan. These plans are: the Gulf of Mexico Shrimp Plan, the Joint South 
Atlantic and Gulf, the Gulf of Mexico Reef Fish Plan, the South Atlantic Reef Fish Plan, the Gulf 
of Mexico Red Drum Plan, the Gulf of Mexico Stone Crab Plan, and the Joint South Atlantic and 
Gulf of Mexico Coastal Migratory Species Plan. Under these plans, NMFS is responsible for 
management of the following species for which Florida Bay is a major nursery habitat: pink 
shrimp, spiny lobster, stone crab, red drum, Spanish mackerel, gray snapper, mutton snapper, 
jewfish, and other species of snapper, grunts and porgies. Under the Endangered Species Act, 
NMFS is responsible for the following species found in Florida Bay: loggerhead turtle 
(threatened), Kemp's Ridley turtle (endangered), and the green turtle (endangered). Florida 
Bay is a very important developmental area for green turtles and may soon be listed as critical 
habitat under the Endangered Species Act. A candidate species for endangered species 
designation found in Florida Bay is the jewfish. Under the Marine Mammal Act, NMFS is 
responsible for the bottlenose dolphin, a species found in the Bay. 

9.1.6.2.3. AVHRR Coastal Satellite Imagery 

Four-kilometer sea surface temperature fields are being acquired by NMFS/SEFSC from the 
University of Miami (UM) Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science (RSMAS) and 
are being used to construct 5-day composites of the waters of the western North Atlantic along 
the eastern seaboard. The dataset will contain data from 1983 to the present. 


A B. Causey, NOAA/NOS Florida Keys Marine Sanctuary, POB 500360, Marathon, FL 33050. 305 743 2437. 

* 

F. A. Cross, Coastal Change Analysis Program, NOAA/NMFS, Beaufort Laboratory, 101 Pivers Island Road, Beaufort, NC 
28516-9722. 919 728 8724. 

0 NOAA/NMFS/SEFSC, 75 Virginia Beach Dr., Miami, FL 33149. 305 361 5761. 


66 



9.1.6.2.4. Responses of fish and shellfish to habitat changes 

The purpose of this program is to quantify and compare densities of fishes and decapods in 
central Florida Bay basins (subject to hypersalinity) and western Florida Bay (not subject to 
hypersalinity) as freshwater flow to central basins is increased. This work is being done in 
cooperation with the National Biological Survey.^ 

9.1.6.2.5. Marine mammals 

Aerial surveys beginning in the late 1970s indicated that Florida bay and the Florida Keys are 
habitat for bottlenose dolphins. This species accumulates toxins and pollutants and can be used 
as an indicator of ecosystem health. To provide census information, movements, and habitat 
use, field observer surveys will be supplemented with satellite and/or radio/sonic tags. To 
obtain information on animal condition and health, individuals will be captured alive and tissue 
samples obtained for chemical analyses. Repeated captures of the same individuals over time 
will be necessary to establish an adequate time series.* * 

9.1.6. 2 . 6 . Seagrass habitat health 

The NMFS Beaufort and Galveston Laboratories are conducting fishery habitat sampling along 
salinity gradients in northwestern Florida Bay. To date, three sampling trips have been 
conducted to evaluate fisheries populations in low salinities (9-17 %o) and salinity transition 
(>20 °/oo) areas in the vicinity of Little Madeira and Madeira bays. At each station, salinity, 
temperature, and bottom samples are taken for vegetation type and abundance. Fish and 
shellfish are identified from each collection and data will be compared with similar samples 
taken during 1990 - 1993 in the high salinity portion of the Bay for community structure 
comparisons. Additionally, Beaufort has established Global Positioning System (GPS) 
coordinates for these sites as well as for published sites sampled during the 1984 - 1985 pre- 
seagrass dieoff studies.* 

9.1.6.2.7. Pink Shrimp 

Pink shrimp are an indicator of the ecological health of Florida Bay. Pink shrimp support a 
valuable commercial fishery for which a relatively long time series of catch and effort is 
available. Statistical analysis of commercial catches suggests that pink shrimp are sensitive 
for freshwater inflow. Pink shrimp are a principal prey item of many game fish in the Bay. This 
study involves statistical analysis, biological modeling, physiological trials, caging 
experiments, resource analysis and genetic analysis. The study will characterize the within- 
year cohorts in the fishery and link them to specific nursery grounds in Florida Bay and nearby 
estuaries.^ This study is being done in cooperation with UM RSMAS and NBS. 

9. 1 . 6 . 2 . 8 . Pesticide analysis of agricultural nonpoint source waters 

There are significant agricultural activities in the upland areas adjacent to Florida Bay and 
these are potential sources of pesticides to the ecosystem. A baseline study to address 
potential inputs of agricultural pesticides was conducted in 1993 - 1994. As more freshwater 
runoff is diverted into Florida Bay as the result of the recent agreement on Everglades 
reflooding, there is an increased possibility of these pesticides entering the Bay. Research 


0 D. Hoss, NOAA/NMFS, 101 Pivers Isl. Rd., Beaufort. NC 28516. 919 728 8746. 

* L. Hansen, NOAA/NMFS, 75 Virginia Bch. Dr., Miami, FL 33149. 305 361 4264. 

* G. Thayer, NOAA/NMFS, 101 Pivers Island Road, Beaufort, NC 28516-9722. 919 728 8784. 
0 j. Browder, NOAA/NMFS, 75 Virginia Bch. Dr., Miami, FL 33149. 305 361 4270. 


67 



activities will include expanded monitoring of pesticide runoff, toxicological assessment of 
runoff effects on crustaceans, establishment of loading models, and comparison of the 1993 - 
1994 data with historical information. ^ This is a joint project between NOAA/NMFS and FDEP. 

9.1.6.2.9. Photointerpretation of bottom habitats 

Quantification of the status and recent change in the spatial distribution and extent of 
seagrasses is central to understanding the nature and extent of the environmental declines 
observed in Florida Bay and to guide research and management efforts. This project is a joint 
effort of C-CAP and FDEP and augments and extends ongoing studies. Completion of the 
inventory and change detection will require a combination of new and historical photography.* * 

9.1.6.3. National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service 

The NOAA/National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) NODC is 
the national facility established to acquire, process, store, and disseminate global 
oceanographic data. NODC is one of the three NOAA national data centers. The others are the 
National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) and the National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC). NODC's 
files include data collected by NOAA, other federal agencies, state and local governments, 
universities and research institutions, and private industry. During January 1994, the NODC 
files were searched for any information on Florida Bay. None were found. 

The NOAA data contribution to the Federal/state Florida bay task force will be managed in 
Miami by the NOAA Data Administrator (Crane, 1995). Data from the NESDIS Data Centers will 
be coordinated and it is anticipated that data from the C-MAN stations in South Florida and the 
NODC taxonomic codes will be made available. CD-ROM files will be loaded on disks connected to 
the Internet. Data will be stored on workstations with Internet addresses in the standard Oracle 
database structure. The Geographic Information System software will be ARC/INFO and 
ARCVIEW2* 

9. 1 . 6 . 4. National Weather Service 

9.1.6.4.1. National Data Buoy Center 

The National Data Buoy Center (NDBC) was originally initiated by the US Coast Guard as the 
National Data Buoy Development Program during the late 1960s (NOAA, 1992). In late 1979, it 
was transferred to NOAA. NDBC is part of the National Weather Service and is located at 
Stennis Space Center, MS. The Coastal-Marine Automated Network (C-MAN) program began in 
1981 and in 1992 there were 63 moored buoys and 40 C-MAN stations. Many of the buoys are 
operated by NDBC for agencies such as National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 
Minerals Management Service (MMS) and Office of Naval Research (ONR) on a reimbursable 
basis. 

The baseline C-MAN measurements are wind speed and direction, barometric pressure, air 
temperature, and sea surface temperature. This capability is augmented at specific sites to 
satisfy other requirements. Enhanced meteorological sensor capabilities include relative 
humidity, rain, wind speed and direction, air temperature, and solar radiation in air. 
Oceanographic enhancements include water temperature (surface and 3 m), water level (using 


A G. Scott, NOAA/NMFS, POB 12607, Charleston, SC 29422. 803 762 1200. 

* B. Cross, NOAA/NMFS, 101 Pivers Isl., Beaufort, ND 28561. 919 728 8784. 

* NOAA/NESDIS /NODC E/OC21, Washington, DC, 20235. 202 606 4549. 

* M. Crane, NODC Liaison, NOAA/AOML, 4301 Rickenbacker Cswy., Miami, FL 33149. 305 361 4305. 


68 



Table 19. C-MAN locations in South Florida. 


Station name 

Fowey Rocks (east of Biscayne Bay) 
Molasses Reef (east of Elliot Key) 

Sombrero Key (Atlantic side of Reef Tract) 
Sand Key (south of Bahia Honda) 

Dry Tortugas 

Long Key (south of Cape Sable) 

1.8-m d buoy (south of Molasses Reef) 


Latitude 

Longitude 

Year deployed 

25.59° 

N 

80.10° 

W 


25.01° 

N 

80.36° 

W 


24.63° 

N 

81.11° 

W 


24.46° 

N 

81.86° 

W 


24.38° 

N 

82.52° 

W 


24.52° 

N 

80.51° 

W 


AQUARIUS site 


1993 ? 


an acoustic rain gauge), ocean surface waves, salinity (surface and 3 m), and solar radiation 
(surface and 3 m). Data is transmitted to shore hourly via the Global Operational Environmental 
Satellite (GOES), and every 15 min via telephone in C-MAN code (modified FM-12 format). The 
data are subjected to quality control in real time and prior to archival through algorithms (dual 
sensors, wind vs. wave energy, swell direction, analyses vs. observation), graphics (time 
series, spectral wave curves and contours, and regional weather maps), support service 
visits, and performance statistics. The data are stored at NOAA/NESDIS. The C-MAN sites in 
South Florida are listed in Table 19. The C-MAN installations at Molasses Reef and Sombrero 
Key are part of NOAA/NWS.* 

9.1.6.4.2. Precipitation 

Spatial precipitation measurements are available from the WSR-88D radar installed at 
and Tampa. These new radars interrogate the sky up to 125 mi from the radar site on an 
basis using newly developed algorithms that provide spatial rainfall measurements on a 
km grid.^ 

9.1.6.5. Oceans and Atmospheric Research 

9.1.6.5.1. Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory 

In collaboration with the University of Miami and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic 
Commission, the NOAA/Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR)/Environmental 
Research Laboratories (ERL)/Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML) is 
developing the capability to provide nowcasts and forecasts of ocean currents for Florida Bay 
and the Straits of Florida. In conjunction with the University of Miami and the United Nations 
Environment Programme, AOML analyzed the effect of temperature and sea level rise on the 
Caribbean ecosystem, including mangroves and coral reefs. In collaboration with the 
NMFS/SEFSC and the University of Miami through the SEFCAR program, AOML is using 
advanced optical and acoustic sampling technology to study fisheries recruitment and its 
control by physical processes adjacent to the Florida Keys. AOML has begun the design of a 
portable sensor package with satellite data relay, for deployment on remote coral reefs which 
will permit remote monitoring of reef condition in Biscayne National Park and the FKNMS. In 
collaboration with the NDBC and the Florida Institute of Oceanography, AOML collects from the 
GOES satellite the data from NOAA buoys and C-MAN stations in the Keys and posts it on a dial- 


Miami 

hourly 

4x4 


* For further information on C-MAN, contact Dave Gilhousen, NOAA/NDBC, Stennis Space Center, MS 601 688 2800. 
0 J. Vogel, NOAA/NWS, 1325 East West Hwy., Silver Spring, MD 20910. 301 713 1 669. 


69 





in bulletin board for regional users. Additionally, three times a week an automated fax of this 
data is sent to test users. This is a demonstration project that will soon have to be discontinued 
since no operational support has been identified. 

9.1.6.5.2. Mesoscale Atmospheric Modeling 

A high resolution non-hydrostatic mesoscale atmospheric model will be employed for prediction 
of the initiation, evolution and distribution of rainfall in the Everglades and Florida Bay and for 
predicting surface wind fields relevant to circulation patterns in Florida Bay. This project is 
being done in cooperation between NOAA/OAR, NOAA/NWS and SFWMD.^ 

9.1.6.5.3. Regional Numerical Ocean Circulation Model 

The circulation of the Intra-Americas Sea (Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea and adjacent waters) 
is central to understanding the external forcing of Florida Bay. A modeling system is needed 
that can resolve the mesoscale variability, utilize effectively whatever data are available and 
provide guidance for enhancing the observing system with critical observations. A hierarchy of 
numerical circulation diagnostic and circulation models is envisioned whereby a Florida Bay 
model is nested into a Straits of Florida model, which in turn is nested into a regional scale 
Gulf/Caribbean/Bahamas/Guianas model, which is nested in an existing operational Atlantic 
basin model. This effort is being done in cooperation with NOAA/OAR, NOAA/NWS, University 
of Miami, and the Florida Institute of Technology.^ 

9. 1 . 6 . 5.4. Zooplankton abundance and grazing potential 

Little research has been conducted on zooplankton grazers in Florida Bay. Until recently, the 
Bay was extremely clear and seagrasses dominated primary production. This suggested that 
macroinvertebrates and teleosts grazing directly upon macrophytic plant production were the 
dominant trophic link between primary and secondary production. Key research components of 
this project will be to sample the abundance of the zooplankton community and determine 
grazing rates. Analyses of the seasonal and spatial distribution will be linked to environmental 
parameters. Estimates of primary consumption and fish larval impacts will be made in 
collaboration with other NOAA, FDEP, and academic investigators.^ 

9.1.6.5.5. Environmental controls upon algal blooms, food web structure and carbon flow 

Multifactorial field microcosm and mesocosm experiments will be used to determine the 
importance of various micronutrients, light, salinity, and turbulence in initiating bloom 
formation. Autoecological laboratory experiments will also be conducted. Translocation 
mesocosm experiments will be used where distinct food webs could be subjected to 
remineralization and nutrient regeneration pathways particularly in regard to sediment/water 
column flux.* This work is a joint effort between NOAA/OAR, SFWMD, and FDEP. 

9.1.6.5.6. National Undersea Research Program 

The University of North Carolina, Wilmington, NC, under contract to the National Undersea 
Research Program (NURP) has established a science support base in the Florida Keys, and 
deployed the AQUARIUS habitat. NURP also established local nutrient chemistry laboratories in 


A M. Powell, NOAA/OAR, 4310 Rickenbacker Cswy., Miami, FL 33149. 305 361 4403. 

^ G. Maul, Florida Institute of Technology, 150 West University Blvd., Melbourne, FL 32901 407 768 8000. 
^ P. Ortner, NOAA/AOML, 4301 Rickenbacker Cswy., Miami. FL 33149 305 361 4384. 

W. Gardner, NOAA/ERL/GLERL, 2205 Commonwealth Blvd., Ann Arbor, Ml 48105. 313 741 2235. 


70 



cooperation with Florida International University Harbor Branch Foundation. NURP deployed and 
operated a wave buoy oft Key Largo in cooperation with NDBC. In collaboration with the Florida 
Institute of Oceanography, the University of Miami, and the Harbor Branch Oceanographic 
Institute, NURP conducted weekly water quality monitoring in the upper, middle, and lower 
Keys since June 1992. In collaboration with the USGS, NURP conducted groundwater monitoring 
in the Keys to investigate sewage and septic nutrient sources. NURP concluded a cooperative 
agreement with the Sanctuaries and Reserves Division to provide expertise and assistance to 
advance science, education, and management within the FKNMS. 

9.1.6.5.7. National Sea Grant College Program 

The National Sea Grant College Program is a nationwide partnership with public and private 
sectors combining research, education and technology transfer. A The Florida Sea Grant is the 
only statewide university-based program of coastal research, education, extension and public 
services in Florida. Faculty from a network of public and private universities and laboratories 
conduct studies in areas such as biotechnology, aquaculture, fisheries, seafood technology, 
policy, ocean engineering, and recreation. Information transfer takes place via a statewide 
network of marine extension faculty in key coastal locations. Education includes training of 
graduate students, instruction of teachers and non-formal public awareness programs. 
Literally, hundreds of publications, plus videos and posters, have been produced by Florida Sea 
Grant. The program works closely with agencies and businesses to achieve long-range goals 
relating to development and conservation of coastal resources on a sustainable basis. Through 
the Florida Sea Grant Program, a number of research and outreach efforts have been or are 
being conducted by Sea Grant and academic investigators.* * Current and past research projects 
are listed in Table 20. 

9.1.7. US Geological Survey 

There are five USGS programs ongoing in South Florida: the Federal/State Cooperative 
Program, the National Mapping Program, the National Geologic Mapping Program, the Marine 
and Coastal Geology Program, and the National Water Quality Assessment Program (NWQAP) 
(Halley, 1994). In addition, the USGS is collaborating with many of the agencies working in 
South Florida, such as NOAA, EPA, NBS, and SFWMD in a variety of programs.* 

9.1.7.1. Water quantity measurements 

9.1.7.1.1. Freshwater discharge - East Coast 

Discharge at 20 highly regulated coastal canals was measured and calibrated to gate openings in 
cooperation with the South Florida Water Management Disctrict. Together with 6 other canals 
that are part of the long-term USGS gaging station program, these data will provide the total 
freshwater discharge to the bays and estuaries between the West Palm Beach Canal (C-51) in 
the north and C-111 in southern Dade County. These data were needed to refine the regional 
water budget and to calibrate the regional hydrologic models used by all management agencies 
in South Florida. 


A NOAA Sea Grant College Program. 1315 East West Hwy., Silver Spring, MD 20910. 301 713 2431. 

* W. Seaman, Florida Sea Grant College Program, Bldg. 803, PO Box 110400, University of Florida, Gainesville. FL 32611- 
0400. 904 392 5070. 

* R. Halley, USGS, Center for Coastal Geology and Regional Studies, 600 Fourth St. South, St. Petersburg, FL 33701-4846. 813 
893 3100 x 3020. 


71 



Table 20. Florida Sea Grant College Program research and extension activities and projects 
concerning Florida Bay and the Florida Keys, and the greater South Florida area, 1972 - 1994 
[W. Seaman, Florida Sea Grant Project, personal communication, 1994], 


Year Title Project number Investigator 

started 


SECTION A: FLORIDA BAY - FLORIDA KEYS PROJECTS 
Longer-term, multi-vear projects bv subject area 


Economics 


1988 Predicting change and maintaining productivity in a R/LR-E-11 Meltzoff 

fishery transformed by real estate development 
and tourism 


Biology 


1975 

Biological studies of the spiny lobster in South 
Florida 

R/LR-B-! 

Labisky, Warner 

1975 

Attractants of the spiny lobster Panulirus argus 

R/LR-B-2 

Ache 

1978 

Spiny lobster larval recruitment in the Florida Keys 

R/LR-B-5 

Menzies, Kerrigan 

1980 

A case study of the exploitation of virgin 
deepwater fish stocks 

R/LR-B-7 

Labisky 

1983 

Habitat requirements of early benthic post-larval 
spiny lobsters 

R/LR-B-9 

Herrnkind, Marx 

1983 

Development of an artificial bait for the Florida 
spiny lobster fishery 

R/LR-B-10 

Ache 

1984 

Effects of oceanographic parameters on the 
distribution and abundance of swordfish in the 
Florida Straits 

Ft/LR-B-15-PD 

Berkeley, Roffer 

1985 

Factors influencing the support capacity of post- 
larval settlement habitat of Florida spiny lobster 

R/LR-B-16 

Herrnkind 

1985 

The effects of man-made reef deployment on 
nearby resident fish populations 

R/LR-B-20 

Alevizon 

1987 

Spiny lobster recruitment 

R/LR-B-26 

Herrnkind 

1991 

Limits to recruitment of spiny lobster in Florida: 

R/LR-B-30 

Butler, Herrnkind 


assessment of artificial enhancement techniques 


Design and structure 

1983 Evaluation of existing and potential hurricane R/C-D-8 Spangler, Jones 

shelters 

Policy 

1988 Impact of the liveaboard boating population on R/C-P-15 Antonini, Zobler, Tupper 

Florida's shore environment and coastal commu¬ 
nities: a case study of the Florida Keys 

1989 A computer-directed geographic coastal use R/C-P-17 Antonini 

classification system for ecologic planning: the case 

of the Florida Keys 


72 




Table 20. Florida Sea Grant College Program research and extension activities and projects 
concerning Florida Bay and the Florida Keys, and the greater South Florida area, 1972 - 1994 
(cont.). 


Year Title Project number Investigator 

started 


Short-term program development and pilot projects 


1974 

Problem analysis of the South Florida spiny lobster 
fishery 

IR-74-1 

Craig 

1974 

TRIAL Spiny Lobster Bibliography 

IR-74-7 

Hermkind 

1976 

Signs design for Monroe County 

IR-76-13 

Warner 

1979 

Trash fish as stone crab bait 

IR-79-5 

Murray 

1980 

Maritime agriculture training experience 

IR-80-6 

Estes, Liederman 

1981 

Habitat requirements of benthic post larval spiny 
lobsters 

IR-81-11-PD 

Herrnkind, Andree 

1981 

Effects of predator removal on coral reef Fish 
community 

IR-81-12 

Bohnsack 

1982 

Demonstration of sponge cutting and regeneration 
as an alternative harvesting technique 

IR-82-15 

Sweat, Stevely 

1982 

Development of an artificial bait for the Florida 
spiny lobster fishery 

IR-82-19 

Ache, Carr 

1984 

Comparative field evaluation of visual methods of 
assessing fish populations 

IR-84-8 

Alevizon 

1984 

Workshop on Florida spiny lobster research and 
management 

IR-84-17 

Hermkind 

1984 

To collect Year 2 regeneration and growth data on 
sponges harvested by cutting compared to hooking 

IR-84-29 

Stevely, Sweat 

1985 

Factors influencing the support capacity of post- 
larval settlement of Florida spiny lobster 

IR-85-1 

Herrnkind 

1987 

Predicting change and maintaining productivity in a 
fishery transformed by real estate and tourism 

IR-87-6 

Meltzoff 

1987 

Diagnosis of coral bleaching 

IR-87-11 

Dodge, Kleppel 

1989 

Influence of changes in freshwater to northeast 
Florida Bay on use of mangrove prop root habitat 
by fishes 

IR-89-5 

Montague 

1990 

The American shoreline in transition: lessons from 
the Florida Keys 

IR-90 9 

Antonini 

1991 

Florida Keys sponge survey 

IR-91-6 

Stevely 

1992 

Reef damage and other ecological impacts of 
hurricane Andrew, with emphasis on productive 
fishery habitats 

PD-92-2-G 

Herrnkind, Butler 

1992 

Florida Keys Symposium 

PD-92-2-1 

Gregory 

1992 

Florida Keys GIS presentation 

PD-92-7-A 

Gregory, Antonini 

1993 

Florida Bay sponge mortality workshop 

PD-93-7 

Stevely, Sweat 

1993 

Tracking of Mississippi River plume in Florida Bay 

PD-93-9 

Wang 

1993 

Limiting factors for phytoplankton production in 
Florida Bay 

PD-93-6 

Philips 


73 





Table 20. Florida Sea Grant College Program research and extension activities and projects 
concerning Florida Bay and the Florida Keys, and the greater South Florida area, 1972 - 1994. 


Year Title Project number Investigator 

started 

SECTION B: GREATER SOUTH FLORIDA AREA PROJECTS 
Longer-term, multi-vear projects bv subject area 


Economics 


1984 

User benefits and economic impact of artificial reefs 
in southeast Florida 

R/LR-E-9-PD 

Milon 

1993 

Estimating non-use values for marine ecosystems 
and endangered species 

R/LR-E-15 

Milon, Thunberg, Adams 

Biology 




1980 

Fishery and biology of swordfish in southeast 

R/LR-B-6 

Berkeley, DeSylva, 


Florida 


Houde 

1982 

Shark by-catch in the Florida longline swordfishery 

R/LR-B-8 

Berkeley 

1984 

Utility of standard yield models for protogynic 
hermaphroditic life history strategies of groupers 

R/LR-B-11 

Fox, Bohnsack 

1984 

Enhancement of the fishery for golden tilefish, 
Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps 

R/LR-B-13 

Able, Grimes, Jones 

1987 

The relative importance of recruitment, attraction 
and production of reef fishes on natural and 
modular artificial reefs 

R/LR-B-22 

Walsh, McGowan, Bohnsack, Rich< 

1991 

Dynamic fishery stock recuperation under variable 
annual quota allocations: the Florida mackerels 

R/LR-B-31 

Ehrhardt 

1990 

The Gulf Stream front, its role in larval fish survival 
and recruitment in Florida 

R/LR-B-29 

Kleppel, Clarke 

1991 

Nutrient cycles and optimum productivity of 
shallow-water artificial reefs 

R/LR-B-34 

Szmant 

1993 

Influence of artificial reef shelter characteristics on 
fish community structure and promotion 

R/LR-B-36 

Szmant, Bohnsack 

1993 

Evaluation of shrimp bycatch impacts on single 
species fishery management alternatives 

R/LR-B-37 

Ehrhardt 

Aquaculture 



1987 

Regulation of gonad development in shrimp 

R/LR-A-11 

Quackenbush 

1989 

Peptide hormone control of reproduction in a 
marine shrimp 

R/LR-A-12 

Quackenbush 

1991 

Regulation of yolk production in a marine shrimp, 
Penaeus vannamei 

R/LR-A-16 

Quackenbush 

1991 

Enzyme activities as biochemical indices of 
condition in larval and juvenile red drum 

R/LR-A-17 

Clarke, Walsh 

Shore dynamics and planning 



1982 

Design and stability of multiple inlet bay systems 

R/C-S-16 

van de Kreeke 

1987 

Cross-sectional stability of multiple inlets 

R/C-S-25 

van de Kreeke 

1989 

Field experiment evaluation of the effects of beach 
restoration on stony corals of southeast Florida 

R/C-S-29 

Goldberg, Dodge 

1989 

Coastal turbidity associated with natural and man- 

R/C-S-30 

Hanes 


Induced phenomena 




Table 20. Florida Sea Grant College Program research and extension activities and projects 
concerning Florida Bay and the Florida Keys, and the greater South Florida area, 1972 - 1994 
(cont.). 


Year Title Project number Investigator 

started 

Design and structure 

1985 Design and testing of a wave absorber for a vertical R/C-D-12 van de Kreeke 

seawall 


Estuarine productivity and restoration 


1982 Restoration of urban estuarine 1. hydrodynamic 

transport in north Biscayne Bay 

1982 Restoration of urban estuarine II. suspended 

particulates in north Biscayne Bay 

1993 Algal blooms in coastal waters: using corals to 

differentiate nutrients from pollution or natural 
sources 

1993 Algal blooms in coastal waters: eutrophication on 

coral reefs of southeast Florida 

Short-term Droaram develoDment and Dilot Droiects 

R/C-E-21 

R/C-E-22 

R/C-E-33 

R/C-E-34 

Wang, van de Kreeke 

Wanless 

Dodge, Fisher, Swart, 
Hawley 

LaPointe, Hanisak 

1977 

Conference on hermit crabs 

IR-77-4 

McLaughlin 

1977 

Lobster attractant field trials 

IR-77-15 

Ache 

1982 

Determination of food sources of the pink shrimp, 
Penaeus duorarum in South Florida 

IR-82-13 

Zieman 

1982 

Small scale aquaculture demonstration project 

IR-82-17 

Pybas, Lawlor 

1983 

Bait shrimp fishery of Biscayne Bay 

IR-83-9 

Berkeley 

1983 

User benefits and economic impacts of artificial 
reefs in southeast Florida 

IR-83-14-PD 

Milon 

1984 

Symposium: Physics of Shallow Estuaries and Bays 

IR-84-16 

van de Kreeke 

1984 

The role of nutrients in the enhancement of the 
productivity of shallow water artificial Reefs 

IR-84-27 

Szmant-Froelich 

1990 

Biscayne Bay, a bibliography of the marine 
environment 

IR-90-12 

Hale 

1992 

Prioritizing the removal of damaged, sunk boats, 
caused by hurricane Andrew 

PD-92-10 

Antonini, Clarke 

1992 

Analysis of hurricane Andrew economic damage and 
recovery options for the boating, marina and marine 
service industries, major employers in South Florida 

PD-92-11 

Baker, Villanueva 

i\ 

1992 

An engineering comparison of beach and coastal 
structural damage from hurricanes Andrew and 
Hugo 

PD-92-12 

Wang 

1992 

Preliminary characterization of red mangrove 
disease 

PD-92-13 

Webb 

1993 

Workshop of pre-hurricane preparation and post¬ 
hurricane response and recovery plans 

PD-93-8 

Villanueva, Pybas 


75 




Table 20. Florida Sea Grant College Program research and extension activities and projects 
concerning Florida Bay and the Florida Keys, and the greater South Florida area, 1972 - 1994 
(cont.). 


SECTION C: EXTENSION ACTIVITIES: 

Florida Sea Grant is the only academic or state or federal governmental organization to conduct a state 
wide program of outreach, information and technology transfer, extension and public service dealing with 
coastal issues. As part of its network of state wide specialists concerned with various technical subjects and 
12 professionals in coastal locations across the state, Florida Sea Grant has two marine extension agents 
working in southern Florida, in Dade and Monroe counties. 

The Monroe County Sea Grant Extension agent is based in Key West, and serves the entire Keys and 
Florida Bay area. The Dade County Sea Grant Extension agent is based in Miami, serving all of the county 
including the Biscayne Bay waterfront. Both conduct public information programs and work to provide 
objective, scientifically based information to user groups in marine industries, fishing, tourism, management, 
and others. 


9.1.7.1.2. Freshwater discharge to Florida Bay 

The primary channels carrying fresh water into Florida Bay were instrumented and dishcarge 
measurements made in order to obtain stage-discharge relations. These data are needed to 
understand the water budget and controls on salinity within the Bay, and to calibrate the 
hydrologic models prepared by the National Park Service and NOAA. Water samples were 
collected at the time discharge measurements were made, and in conjunction with other 
sampling programs. The flow and water quality data increased the understanding of nutrient 
transport mechanisms into the Bay. 

9.1.7.2. Modeling enhancements 

9.1.7.2.1. Model review 

Existing hydrologic models being used to simulate flow conditions that existed in South Florida 
prior to construction of canals, levees, and pumping stations cannot be verified because of a 
lack of historical data. This short-term limited scope project analyzed the sensitivity of the 
model to various parameters using statistical techniques to define model errors. Results were 
used to place confidence limits on the ability of the model to reasonably simulate various 
hydrologic conditions and alternatives. 

9.1.7.2.2. Vegetative resistance to flow 

Surface water models in the Everglades are highly sensitive to the surface roughness 
coefficient used in the flow equation. This project utilized laboratory flume experiments to 
provide resistance coefficients representing characteristic Everglades conditions. These data 
were used by the SFWMD to refine the hydrologic models relied on by all federal and state 
agencies to plan Everglades restoration. 


76 




9.1.7.2.3. Evapotranspiration measurements and modeling 

Although evapotranspiration is a major component of the Everglades water budget, few 
measurements have been made for the variey of land-cover environments characteristic of the 
region. This project installed instrumentation at 8 sites in a variety of environmental settings 
and will develop field measurements of evapotranspiration based on a process-oriented model. 
Data developed at the eight sites was used to extrapolate areal evapotranspiration values for 
use in the hydrologic model relied on by all federal and state agencies to plan Everglades 
restoration. 

9.1.7.2.4. Elevation data 

Modeling of sheet flow and surface water stage are highly sensitive to land-surface elevation 
data which are poorly defined throughout much of the flat terrain of South Florida. Using new 
GPS technology made available by NOAA, elevation data with an accuracy of better then 0.5 ft 
were obtained in critical areas. These data improved the performance of hydrologic models and 
also provided useful ancillary data for biologic studies planned by federal and state agencies. 

9.1.7.2.5. Groundwater flow beneath Conservation Area 3B levee 

A major component of Everglades restoration is the maintenance of higher water levels in 
Conservation Area 3B and construction of a flow way between the levee and the adjacent urban 
area. Uncontrolled groundwater flow beneath the levee had not been measured but was 
estimated to be as much as 30% of the outlfow from the conservation area. A combination of 
surface water measurments and groundwater modeling provided improved estimates of leakage 
beneath the levee and improved the calibration and predictions of regional hydrologic models. 

9.1.7.2.6. Open channel and wetlands flow transport 

Linkage of models depicting flow within various hydrologic components of the Everglades flow 
system is needed to better understand and simulate the movement of nutrients. This project 
developed a model to simulate fluid-driven mass and a constituent transport in canals, 
groundwater, and wetlands (sheet flow). 

9.1.7.3. Everglades water quality 

9.1.7.3.1. Mercury accumulation and cycling 

Although considerable monitoring of Hg in water, sediments and fish was done in South Florida, 
only limited work was done to understand the processes by which Hg enters the food chain. This 
project determined the effect that various environmental factors, such as levels of dissolved 
organic C, nutrients, S, and hydrologic conditions, have on transport, sedimentation, 
volatilization, and methylation of Hg. 

9.1.7.3.2. Geochemical processes in organic-rich surficial sediments 

To an unknown but potentially significant degree, the concentrations of dissolved elements such 
as C, P, N, and trace and heavy metals, are controlled by chemical and biochemical reactions 
occurring in the peat and other organic-rich soil underlying much of the Everglades. This 
project looked at regional geochemical processes and trends as well as the effect of alternating 
periods of wetting and drying. 


77 


9.1.7.3.3. Terrestrial and freshwater ecosystem history 

Although considerable effort is going into understanding the nature of the observed stress on 
the Everglades ecosystem, there is little knowledge of what conditions were like prior to 
anthropogenic influences and particularly what, if any, natural ecosystem cycles existed in the 
past. This project compared modern, historic, and prehistoric biotic assemblages in sediments 
from a wide variety of settings. Data on naturally occurring ecosystem variability, including 
dires and biodiversity, helped established a baseline for restoration of the ecosystem. 

9.1.7.4. Florida Bay Water quality 

9.1.7.4.1. Geophysical mapping of fresh ground water 

The groundwater component of freshwater flow into Florida Bay is not quantified. This project 
used airborne geophysical techniques to map the freshwater/salt-water interface beneath the 
Everglades immediately north of the Bay. Repeated surveys related the interface position to 
hydrologic conditions and provided the basis for supplying groundwater discharge values to 
future salinity models. 

9.1.7.4.2. Marine groundwater seepage 

The effect of groundwater inflow on the quality of water in Florida Bay is largely ignored in 
assessments and models. Seepage meters were installed in Florida Bay as well as the coastal 
reef tract to measure pressure and collect samples of fluid seeping through the rock-water 
interface. Ground water was analyzed for nutrients, salinity, dissolved oxygen and fecal 
coliform bacteria. These data furthered the understanding of the water and chemical budget for 
the Bay. 

9.1.7.4.3. Groundwater flow from the Florida Keys 

The fresh and saline ground water beneath the Florida Keys is known to be contaminated by 
effluent from domestic sewage-disposal systems but the flow mechanism and pathways that 
enable this water to reach Florida Bay and coastal waters is poorly understood. This project 
quantified groundwater flow by means of observation wells and tracer studies. This project 
was the onshore complement to a planned study of seepage rates and quality in the Bay. 

9.1.7.4.4. Florida Bay sedimentation 

The bathymetry of Florida Bay has not been systematically mapped in 30 yrs and new 
bathymetric data helped assess sedimentation rates and provided a foundation for a sediment 
budget. This project employed new techniques allowing for the collection of highly accurate data 
in shallow water and provided bank-top and tidal flat elevation data previously unavailable. 
These data are critical to the development of circulation and sediment budget models. 

9.1.7.4.5. Remote sensing of turbidity and sedimentation 

Although current monitoring programs provide data on water quality at periodic intervals, they 
do not address the questions of the frequency and magnitude of turbidity events or the quantity 
and fate of the sediment being transported. This project used highly processed satellite 
imagery, coupled with field measurements, to produce time-series data on water reflectance, 
sediment load, light attenuation and water temperature. 


78 


9.1.7.4.6. Sedimentation, sea-level rise, and circulation 

A one-foot sea-level rise since 1850 may have resulted in a deepening of Florida Bay of about 
25% (to about 5 ft) with an accompanying increase in water exchange with the ocean and the 
Gulf. However, recent data indicate restricted rather than enhanced exchange with these 
adjacent water bodies. This project integrated existing and planned turbidity and sediment 
studies in order to develop a sediment budget and an evaluation of the effect of sea-level rise, 
storms, and sedimentation on circulation and nutrient supply in the Bay. 

9.1.7.4.7. Florida Bay ecosystem history 

Although considerable effort is going into understanding the nature of the observed stress on 
the ecosystem of Florida Bay, there is little knowledge of what conditions were like prior to 
anthropogenic influences and what, if any, natural ecosystem cycles existed in the past. This 
project compared modern, historic and prehistoric biotic assemblages in sediments beneath the 
Bay. Data on non-anthropogenic salinity distributions, algal blooms and red tides assisted in 
establishing goals for remediation efforts. 

9.1.7.5. Data base development 

Color infrared digital orthophoto maps will not only serve as a base-map source for the work of 
all Federal and Stage agencies engaged in Everglades restoration work, but will also greatly 
assist efforts to map vegetative cover. This project provided current and enhanced digital 
orthophoto format data to replace outdated topographic quadrangles. The digital format of the 
maps provided maximum flexibility to users. A 1:500,000 regional base map prepared from 
rectified satellite imagery will also be produced by this project. 

9.2. State of Florida 

9.2.1. Florida Department of Environmental Protection 

9.2.1.1. Florida Geological Survey 

The Florida Geological Survey (FGS), as part of its ongoing coring and auger drilling programs, 

is collecting lithologic samples that are utilized in geologic research projects such as aquifer 

studies and surface geologic mapping in the south Florida region. The FGS maintains these 

samples as well as those contributed from other sources such as the SFWMD, private water 

wells, and others, in a core library/repository in Tallahassee. Descriptions of these samples 

are entered into a computer database. The locations of the core or auger holes are spotted on 

Dept, of Transportation Highway maps. The FGS is currently conducting a geologic framework 

study of the lower Floridian aquifer system that utilizes this data base. The FGS also collects 

* 

and maintains a borehole geophysical log data base for wells in the South Florida Region. 

9.2.1.2. Bureau of Information Systems Geographic Information System Program 

The Bureau of Information Systems Geographic Information System (BIS GIS) program gathers 
and maintains data layers which are used across multiple programs in the agency. Currently, 
these are used primarily for environmental regulatory and assessment projects. Land use, 
soils, transportation, public land survey, boundaries, hydrography, surface water sheds, 


W. Schmidt. Florida Geoloaical Survey, 903 Tennessee St... Tallahassee, FL 32304-7795. 904 488 9380. 


79 



ground water quality, LANDSAT satellite imagery, census data, and NWI data are being 
collected state-wide, for input into this system. A 

9.2.1.3. Park Management 

Each nesting season, sea turtle population trends and nest surveys are conducted along 
shorelines. Data collected includes nesting locations, species type, strandings, survival rates, 
predation, and false crawls. Shorebird and wading bird data is also collected along shorelines. 
Nesting and resting areas, species type, number of nests, rookery locations, and nesting 
patterns are compiled quarterly. Water quality data are collected in several areas. Park 
roadways and adjacent highways are monitored daily for roadkills and the nurncer and species 
type are recorded. Exotic species removal takes place in several regions. Species type, number 
removed, methodology for removal, and general trends of exotic species invasion is collected 
and entered into a database. Each state park collects data for its plant and animal inventory. 
This inventory includes vertebrates, invertebrates, and native and exotic plant species.^ 

9.2.1.4. Federal Facilities 

The Federal Facilities Program provides direction regarding assessment and cleanup at military 
installations. Site assessment includes the collection and analysis of groundwater, surface 
water, soil and sediment samples as well as ecological assessments. Homestead Air Force Base 
and the Key West Naval Facility are the closest military installations to Florida Bay. 

9.2.1.5. Artificial Reef Program 

The Office of Fisheries Management Artificial Reef Program administers grant money for 
construction of artificial fishing reefs throughout the state. Some US Fish and Wildlife Wallop 
Breaux Sportfish Restoration Money and Saltwater Fishing License revenue grant money has 
helped finance artificial reefs in the Dade and Collier County areas in the past and will probably 
continue to do so. Approximately 84 artificial reefs used for fishing and diving are located 
between the Dade/Broward Line and old Rhodes Key, most in Federal Waters, some in state 
waters. Another unknown number are in the Florida Keys. Collier County has nine permitted 
reef sites between 2.5 and 9 mi offshore. Monroe County formerly had 13 permitted artificial 
reef sites all of which have expired, leaving only two active artificial reef permit sites in the 
keys. Limited information will be available in the future in the form of qualitative fish census 
related data obtained from compliance spot checks of reefs built with state or federal money. 
No artificial reef grants have been given to Monroe County in the past two years. The role of 
the artificial reef in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, other than as mitigation in 
grounding incidents, has not been finalized. s 

9.2.1.6. Surface Water Quality Data Collection and Assessment 

Surface water quality ambient monitoring data are collected by the Division of Water Facilities 
Bureau of Surface Water Management and a variety of regional, county and city governments. 
The data are stored in the EPA STORET water quality data base. The Bureau oversees the 
Florida portion of the data base and provides training in retrieval of the data. The data are also 
assessed in the 305(b) statewide water quality assessment which is produced every 2 yrs. The 


A R. Roaza Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Information System, MS 6520, 2600 Blair Stone Road, 
Tallahasse, FL 32399-2400. 904 488 0892. 

0 M. Glisson. Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Recreation and Parks, 3900 Commonwealth Blvd.,. Mail 
Station 53Q, Tallahassee. FL 32399-3000. 

s J. Dodrill, Environmental Administrator, Office of Fisheries Management, MS 240 B. Mostkoff, DERM, Miami, FL. 305 372 
6699. K. Dugan, Reef Coordinator, Collier County. 813 774 8454. 


80 



report presents status of the waters and trends. The report uses 4,400 watersheds throughout 
the state and presents results for each watershed which contains STORET data. A qualitative 
nonpoint source assessment using the same watersheds and based on questionnaires sent to 
local experts is also presented. 0 

9.2.1.7. Florida Marine Research Institute 

The Florida Marine Research Institute (FMRI) is collecting data in the entire coastal region but 
at different levels in different regions. General projects developing data in Florida Bay include, 
algal bloom mapping, phytoplankton distribution and production, juvenile and resident fish 
population monitoring, surveys of crustacean and molluscan microfauna, bay scallops, spiny 
lobsters, sponges, water quality circulation, benthic mapping of 26 community types, seagrass 
and macroalgae monitoring, endangered marine species monitoring, mangrove monitoring and 
mapping, coral monitoring, marine facilities locations, and commercial fishery landings. FMRI 
has been developing a GIS database for the region to be used by the public and researchers and 
managers. Information being used in digital formats are nautical charts, shoreline, NWI data, 
benthic maps, water color, bathymetry, navigation aides, road networks, marine facilities, 
wildlife and endangered and threatened species locations, and scanned USGS 7.5-min quads. The 
information is from a variety of federal, state, local governments and private entities. 

9.2.1.8. Wetlands Regulation Tracking and Assessment 

ORACLE-based database and ORACLE forms application house the data and assist in processing 
gathered information. ORACLE consists of selected information on permits issued by the 
Department of Environmental Protection, including site location, permit type, size and nature of 
impact, acreage and types of wetlands lost, created, enhanced, and preserved. Benefits include 
accurate information on potential and actual impacts of permitted projects in the State of 
Florida. Information will be accessed by government agencies. A 

9.2.1.9. Living Marine Resources 

This pilot project consists of development of a Geographic Information System to begin a 
statewide dock inventory. It will facilitate the Bureau of Submerged Land and Preserves in the 
Review and authorization of docks on state owned lands by providing a computerized method to 
display geographic data and to assist the impact of new dock construction on the submerged and 
emergent resources including seagrass, mangroves, and hardbottoms. The GIS system includes 
land title information, aerial photography, historical records, and ground truthing for 
submerged lands.^ 

9.2.1.10. Water Quality Monitoring of Western Florida Bay 

The FDEP conducts water quality sampling and analysis of surface water of the southwest 
Florida shelf in an area extending westward form the west coast of Florida between Cape 
Romano and the Florida Keys to a line running north from Key West. The project monitors 


n J. Hand. FDEP, 2600 Blair Slone Road, Tallahasse,. FL 32399-2400 904 487 0505. 

K. Haddad. Florida Marine Research Institute, 100 8th Ave., SE, St. Petersburg, FL 33701. 813 896 8626. 

A J. W. Stoutamire. Florida Department of Environmental Regulation., 2600 Blair Stone Road, Tallahassee, FL 32399-2400. 
904 488 0130. 

0 M. E. Ashlev. Florida Department of Environmental Protection. MS 66, 3900 Commonwealth Blvd., Tallahassee, FL 32399. 
904 488 2294. 


81 



nutrients, chlorophyll, and other water quality parameters. This is an extension of the Florida 
International University (FIU) - ENP * * SFWMD network. 

9.2.2. Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission 

9.2.2.1. Nongame Habitat Protection and Restoration 

The Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission (FGFWFC) maintains a GIS database 
containing information pertinent to habitat protection for nongame and endangered species. The 
primary data layers include land cover from LANDSAT imagery, conservation areas, hot spots 
of biological diversity for 54 vertebrate taxa, and critical wetlands.* 

9.2.2.2. Nongame Wildlife Survey and Monitoring 

The Bureau of Nongame Wildlife maintains the Wildlife Observation Database (WILDOBS) of 
spatially-referenced occurrence records for selected nongame species. The Bureau also 
maintains the Florida Breeding Bird Atlas database which includes records of the status of 
breeding birds in Florida within each block of a grid system covering the entire stated 

9.2.2.3. Wildlife Research 

The FGFWFC Bureau of Wildlife conducts survey and monitoring programs to determine 
statewide status and trends of Florida panther, brown pelican, and bald eagle populations. 
Status and trends studies are also conducted for specific areas of the state. In South Florida, 
black bear, Florida grasshopper sparrow, snail kite, and American crocodile studies have been 
conducted. 1 ^ 

9.2.3. Florida Coastal Management Program 

The Department of Community Affairs of the Florida Coastal Management Program maintains 
the Coastal Information Exchange Bulletin Board System (CIE-BBS), an online information for 
environmental professionals statewide.* 

9.2.2. South Florida Water Management District 

The South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) was instituted in 1949 to manage the 
system of canals built by the Army COE in South Florida. SFWMD jurisdiction boundaries, 
drainage basin, shorelines and other parameters can be obtained from the District office.* Two 
of these canals, the C-111 and Taylor Slough (S174), directly impact Florida Bay, and 
freshwater flow in these two systems can be directed either to the southwest (Taylor Slough) 
or the southeast (C-111) (Ley, 1994). Prior to 1987, the system was operated so that greater 
flows were diverted towards C-111. Recent operations have sent greater flows towards the 


P. Mathews, FDEP, 3900 Commonwealth Blvd., Tallahassee, FL 32399-3000. 904 488 4892. C. Weaver, SFWMD, POB 
24680, West Palm Bch.. FL 33416-4680. 407 686 6051. 

R. Kurtz, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, 620 S. Meridian St., Tallahassee, FL 32399-1600. 904 488 
6661 . 

A G. Reynolds, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, 620 S. Meridian St., Tallahassee, FL 32399-1600. 904 921 
5982. 

® T. Logan, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, 620 S. Meridian St., Tallahassee, FL 32399-1600. 904 488 
3831. 

* J. Dorst or H. Wetherington, Florida Coastal Management Program, 2740 Centerview Dr., Tallahassee, FL 32399-2100. 904 
922 5438. 

* B Brown, SFWMD, 3301 Gun Club Rd , West Palm Bch , FL 33416-4680 407 686 6051. 


82 



Taylor Slough. The SFWMD plans to expand its monitoring network. In partnership with the 
Everglades National Park, data acquisition has been intensified in the freshwater wetlands of 
Taylor Slough, the transition zone south of C-111, and in Florida Bay. The SFWMD is monitoring 
water quality, salinity, groundwater, and surface water over an intensive network of stations. 

9.2.2.1. GIS Database 

The SFWMD maintains a GIS database containing existing and future land use/cover, water 
permit information, monitoring station sites, hydrography data including canals, rivers, lakes 
and streams, structures, demographic data, transportation, soils, and others. Water use 
permit boundaries of the properties that the permits are issued to are also included.* 

9.2.2.2. Hydrography 

A set of DLG hydrography data from USGS is maintained in a SFWMD database in the original 
1:100.000 quad maps. The District is working on a more detailed hydrography data layer 
derived from 1:24,000 scale quad maps.* 

9.2.2.3. Public land 

The public land data contain the boundaries of public owned lands which consist of Save Our 
Rivers lands, state and federal lands, Indian lands, conservation and recreational lands, and 
water conservation areas.* 

9.2.2.4. Demographic data 

The coverage was developed from the US Census Bureau TIGER files, and the attributes and 
records are from the 1990 Census count. The data are divided into population (62 attributes) 
and housing (59 attributes). The coverage contains two different levels of geography, the 
Census track, and block groups.* 

9.3. Academia 

The two largest universities in the South Florida are the UM and FIU. These two institutions 
have conducted research in Florida Bay for many years. Other universities in the state, such as 
Florida State University and the University of Florida, have also been active. Brief summaries 
of activities of the South Florida based universities are included below. Other universities that 
conducted studies in the area can be found in the list of permits issued by ENP for work in 
Florida Bay in recent years (Table 15). 

9.4. Local agencies 
9.4.1. Dade County 

Dade County's Department of Environmental Resources Management (DERM), working jointly 
with the SFWMD, conducted a water qualtiy and biological monitoring program in northeast 
Florida Bay. The C-111/Taylor Slough water quality and biological monitoring project began in 
October 1993. The purpose of the project is to monitor water quality and benthic vegetation in 
response to changes in water management practices of the C-111 canal and increased water 
delivery to Taylor Slough. Dade County DERM also conducts expeditious monitoring of water 
quality during events of large pulse discharges to northeast Florida Bay and Manatee Bay. 

The C-111/Taylor Slough Water Quality and Biological Monitoring Program involves monthly 
visits to a series of stations in northeast Florida Bay in the region from Little Madeira Bay east 


83 


to US Highway 1. Physical water quality parameters measured at the surface, one meter, and 
bottom of each station include temperature, pH, conductivity, oxidation/reduction potential, 
salinity, dissolved oxygen, and photosynthetically active radiation. Biological parameters 
include seagrass shoot and blade density by species, and seagrass standing crop biomass. 

9.4.2. Monroe County 

As of this writting, the environmental programs conducted by Monroe County focused on land 
and freshwater not on Florida Bay. 

9.5. Private sector 

9.5.1. The Nature Conservancy 

The Florida Bay Watch Program^ of The Nature Conservancy, which became active in March 
1994, has a two-fold mission in Florida Keys: to collect valuable scientific information about 
the health and status of the Florida Bay ecosystem and to involve concerned citizens in the Keys 
in formulating solutions for the problems of the Bay. Program participants will learn about 
environmental monitoring and observation of the cycles and responses of natural systems that 
are influential in the livelihood and lifestyle of area residents. The deteriorating water quality 
in Florida Bay is affecting commercial and sports fishing in the Bay, and commercial fishermen 
were among the first to recognize and report the problem. 

The Florida Bay Watch Program trains and empowers volunteers to monitor water quality and 
related phenomena in the Bay and adjacent waters. Volunteers are collecting scientific and 
observational data such as water quality and associated phenomena, and anecdotal information 
such as location of fish kills and deformities, sponge die-offs, and the location of algal blooms. 
Sampling began at nine stations in June 1994 and more will be added. Monthly aerial flyovers 
are also carried out. A plane flies over the Bay looking for discolored water patches. A 
scientist with a GPS takes waypoints and maps the areas of discolored water. Then FMRI 
scientists and Bay Watch volunteers go out and take samples at selected sites. Data for March, 
April, May, and June will be available by August 1995. The volunteers collect a water sample 
to be analyzed for algal species, relative abundance, presence of cyanobacteria, chlorophyll, 
total particulate load, organic and inorganic load. A second sample is analyzed for total P. The 
volunteers also take hydrometer, thermometer and secchi disk readings, wind speed and 
direction, current speed and direction, color of the water and note tides for the day. This 
information is stored at FMRI. Dr. R.Jones, FIU, analyzed these samples for Bay Watch. Benthic 
sampling, CTD tows and anecdotal information projects began in the summer of 1994. Bay 
Watch is designed and coordinated to augment ongoing water quality studies conducted by FIU, 
the FMRI and ENP. 

The Nature Conservancy recently completed an anecdotal and historical chronology of events 
that affected the marine environment of the Florida Keys from 1714 to the present (DeMaria, 
in press). Excerpts of this work are listed in Table 21. 


0 F. Decker, Florida Bay Watch Program, PO Box 500368, Marathon, FL 33050. 305 743 2437 or 800 2149BAY. 


84 



Table 21. Excerpts of the anecdotal and historical chronology of events that affected the marine 
environment of the Florida Keys from 1714 to the present prepared by The Nature Conservancy 
(text as found in draft document except for minor editing) [DeMaria (in press)]. 


Year(s) 

Event 

1917 

Canals dug in the Cape area for drainage. Before ditches were dug, fishing was 
not great in that area. Afterward, once the ditches were opened and connected 
all the lakes to each other, the fishing became phenomenal. 

1917 

1918-1923 

Sponge disease hits the lower Keys. 

Everglades Drainage District was formed to cut canals and drain the muck lands 
of the Everglades. 

1919 

1920-1963 

Lobster regulations in existence. 

Intensive time for water management. Conservation areas are enclosed for 
better management control. Cut off the flow of water going into the northeast 
Shark River slough which causes seepage problems for the Biscayne Aquifer. 

1 926 

October, large lobster crawl observed off Elliot Key. 

A hurricane blows water out of Lake Okeechobee and drowns many people. Soon 
afterwards, the Army Corps of Engineers begins building a dike to hold the 
water in the lake. (Note: The hurricane hit while canals were being dug in the 
Everglades.) 

Bad year for lobsters fishing in the upper Keys. 

The Upper Keys Highway opens. 

1 928 

Tamiami Trail Highway has some culverts, but is still an impediment to the 
southward flow of water. It officially opens. 

1 929 

The canals overdrained the area and did not provide for adequate flood 
protection during heavy rains. 

Work is completed on the Miami, Hillsboro, and North New River canals which 
are designed to drain the Everglades. 

1929-1930 

1929-1950 

1930s 

1931 

1932 

1932-1935 

1934 

Winter, temperature reaches 32°F numerous times in Miami. 

No major changes to water management in the Everglades. 

No lobster in Key West. 

Scientists growing conch pearls in Key West. 

Unusually cold winter. 

Lobster leave the Keys. None around to be harvested. 

July, first tourism push by the state of Florida in order to revive the economy 

Pre 1935 

of Key West. 

Huge drifts of grass observed in the west Florida Bay area. 

Prior to 1935, the upper Bay is sealed off from other water bodies due to the 
construction of the railroad, which is almost all filled causeways. There are no 

1 935 

bridges from Lower Matecumbe Key to Key Largo and Homestead. 

September 2, the Great Labor Day Hurricane hits the Keys. The eye wall passes 
over Islamorada. Describing the scene during and after the great 1935 
hurricane: ‘Blue, green and gold vistas had turned lead gray". Waves crash 
over track in Islamorada, which is only seven feet above sea level. Seventeen 
foot high tidal wave crosses over tracks. Forty two miles of roadbed are 
washed out. A temporary track of fill was constructed in order to get the old 

1936 

447 engine free. 

September, mangroves in the middle keys wiped out due to hurricane. 

Flood Control Act of 1936 gives the Army Corps of Engineers responsibility for 
federal flood protection. 

1937-1938 

Winter is very dry. 


85 



Table 21. Excerpts of the anecdotal and historical chronology of events that affected the marine 
environment of the Florida Keys from 1714 to the present prepared by The Nature Conservancy 
(text as found in draft document except for minor editing) [DeMaria (in press)] (cont.). 


Year(s) 

1938 


1939 


1940 
Pre WWII 

1941 

1 940S-1 950s 

Pre WWII 

WW II 

1943 

1944 

1945 

Post WW II 

1946 
1946-47 
1946 or 1947 


Event 

In March, the Overseas Highway is opened which was created on top of the old 
railroad system. 

'Saw big red shoals of lobsters swimming off Key West.' 

There is a fishing wharf at Flamingo where boats are rented out. 

Clear water is found in Florida Bay only when there has not been a great deal of 
rain or wind. 

Commercial fishers object to the inclusion of Florida Bay as part of the 
Everglades National Park. 

Sport fishing not as good in Florida Bay proper as in nearby waters. 

Sponge blight kills sponges throughout the Keys. 

Winter, severe cold front hits the Keys. Temperature down to 41 °F. 

Fish become 'paralyzed' due to cold front. 

1940s County law stated that you could only have 200 wooden slated lobster 
traps. 

The first lobster traps begin being used in the Keys. 

Before flood control project, average rainfall in Everglades is 55 in/yr. 

Few boat basins or marinas exist in the Keys. 

Algae bloom observed in the area of Rabbit Key, Arsenicker Key, Twin Keys 
and Ninemile Bank. 

Navy pipeline brings fresh water from mainland wells to Key West, Civilians 
not allowed to hook up until after the war. The Navy creates an airfield on Boca 
Chica Key during WW II. 

Queen conch population plentiful. 

Northeast Florida Bay is muddy all the time, a pale white muddy clay. No real 
vegetation exists. 

A red tide bloom is observed near Bahia Honda/Harbor Key/Content Key area. 
This disease almost decimates the sponges as well as killing uncountable tons of 
fish. 

Key West and Marathon become rejuvenated with military stations and training 
programs. The navy's water line ensures water supply throughout the chain . 
August, 818 pounds of jewfish are caught off Pigeon Key in the span of 90 
minutes. Two people catch the fish while fishing from the 7-mile bridge . The 
largest of the 6 fish is 280 pounds, the smallest is 16 pounds. 

Monroe County Commission issues an order halting the practice of drying shark 
skins on the No Name Key causeway. (Shark processing plant at the time is 
located on the eastern shore of Big Pine Key.) 

October, hurricane hits the Key West area. 

Illegal to catch bonefish in nets and seines. Bonefish used to be sold on the 
streets of Key West by the 'Conchs'. 

Development boom in south Florida and the Keys. Commercial and sport fishing 
industries flourish and some tourism begins. 

Sponge blight kills sponges throughout the Keys. 

Major flood in Ft. Lauderdale/Miami area. East coast under water for a while. 
Two big storms move through the Key Largo area the first six weeks of lobster 
season. 


86 



Table 21. Excerpts of the anecdotal and historical chronology of events that affected the marine 
environment of the Florida Keys from 1714 to the present prepared by The Nature Conservancy 
(text as found in draft document except for minor editing) [DeMaria (in press)] (cont.). 


Year(s) Event 


1947 

On December 6, the Everglades National Park is established. (It was authorized 
May 10, 1934.) 

1947 or 1948 

1 948 

Large lobster crawl observed off Elliot Key. 

The Army Corps of Engineers and the State of Florida start work on a 
comprehensive plan for flood control in central and south Florida. 

Small local hurricane called ‘Conchita* hits the lower Keys and Key West. 

1948, 1950 

Square wooden lobster traps become popular in the Keys. 

Whitewater Bay, which used to be white and one of the most productive fishing 
grounds, turns brown. 

1949 

1949 

South Florida Water management District is established. 

'Pink gold* shrimp discovered off Tortugas. Beginning of shrimp boom in the 
Florida Keys. 

1 950 

Florida Keys Aqueduct Authority expands water lines up the Keys. Population 
starts to shift. 

1950-1955 

Central and South Florida flood control project is begun. East Coast containment 
levy is built. 

Whitewater Bay, which used to be white and one of the most productive fishing 
areas, turns brown. 

1950s 

Researchers from the University of Miami, led by ecologist Durbin Tabb, warn 
of environmental changes caused by the shortage of fresh water in the Florida 
Bay region. 

Rainfall stays the same (55 in) in the Everglades area'. Much water flows out 
Shark River slough. 

Organized efforts in mosquito control begin. Monroe County provides diesel- 
based mosquito spray for residents. 

Artificial sponges are developed, commercial crawfish traps are being used in 
the Keys. 

Coral reef looks "spectacular*. High water turbidity due to the large amounts of 
dredge and fill projects in the Keys. 

Navy begins aerial mosquito spraying. 

Droughts and fires in the Everglades prompt Florida officials to store water 
during wet seasons for later use by urban and agricultural interests. In the 
years since, no high fluorescent bands occur in corals. 

Stable population of scallops located in the basin between Rabbit Key and Man of 
War Key. 

In the fall and winter, a reoccurring, short-lived algae bloom near Buchanan and 

1 952 

Arsenicker Keys. 

Big clam bed located off Shark River that reaches out to twelve feet of water 
(Quahog clams?). 

Late, mechanical pullers come to be used in the lobster fishery. 

Monroe County Mosquito Control District created. 

Last known Caribbean monk seal in the Florida Keys killed near Key West. 

1954 

Levee is built from Lake Okeechobee to Miami to keep Everglades water to the 
west of the city. 


87 



Table 21. Excerpts of the anecdotal and historical chronology of events that affected the marine 
environment of the Florida Keys from 1714 to the present prepared by The Nature Conservancy 
(text as found in draft document except for minor editing) [DeMaria (in press)] (cont.). 


Year(s) 

Event 

1 950s-1960s 

Key West ocean outfall sewage pipe is built. Located approximately one quarter 
mile offshore, east of the shipping channel in 20 ft of water, this pipe pumps 
raw sewage from the city of Key West into the ocean. 

Massive population of diadema on the banks. 

Fishing guides fished five miles upstream in Taylor River Slough for largemouth 
Bass. 

1959-1961 

1950-1970 

1954-1959 

Cuban exiles move to the Keys. 

Sewage outfall from Miami is placed in the shallow waters of Biscayne Bay. 
Drainage district emphasis is on forming the northern boundary of the 
Everglades Agricultural Area. 

1955-1976 
1956, 1957 

1 957 

1960 

Can see the bottom of Florida Bay. 

"Being on Hawk's Channel on a boat is like being on air can see the bottom." 

An especially cold winter. 

Vaca cut created. 

1960s 

Hurricane Donna wipes out all of the tall mangroves next to Shark River, near 
Flamingo, and the middle Keys. The eye moves over Long Key. 

December, John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park is dedicated. Regarding 
Pennekamp Park: "no commercial shell, coral, or seaweed hunters would be 
permitted to destroy the natural beauty of the reef. On days when the ocean is 
calm, visitors will be able to look down through up to 60 ft of water, so clear 
that the barracuda, shark and rays swimming beneath them seem 
uncomfortably close". 

Extension of water management canal system into Dade County. 

Height of Army Corps of Engineers construction activity in South Florida. 

Slight decrease in rainfall in the Everglades area, increased water flow out 
Shark River. 

Anglos and Cubans have separate fishhouses. Increase in the amount of Cuban 
lobstermen in the Keys. Anglos will not buy Cuban crawfish nor sell them traps. 
"Crawfishing is an Anglo trade. Cubans fish for yellowtail, stone crabs, conchs, 
and turtles". 

1 960s-1 970s 

Traveling back and forth between Flamingo and Marathon, Florida Bay water is 
crystal clear all the way. 

Stone crab industry expands and increases 

Muddy sparse Halodule seagrass beds are present in northeast Florida Bay. 

A lot of lobsters are caught in international waters and land in Monroe County. 
Scallop bloom in Florida Bay north of Lower Matecumbe Key in the late 1960s. 
The scallops stay for about two years, then vanish. 

Late, the first lobster traps from the Keys placed in Florida Bay. 

Mid to late 1960s, see a decline in the amount of fish in the upper and middle 
Keys in the nearshore waters, bayside. 

Increase in deer herd in the northwest conservation area 3A, due to decrease in 
water retention. High deer mortality during wet season when standing water is 
everywhere. 

1961 

1963 

1965 

February, Marvin Adams waterway in Key Largo constructed. 

Mosquito Control District buys planes and starts aerial spraying. 

Hurricane Betsy. 


88 



Table 20. Excerpts of the anecdotal and historical chronology of events that affected the marine 
environment of the Florida Keys from 1714 to the present prepared by The Nature Conservancy 
(text as found in draft document except for minor editing) [DeMaria (in press)] (cont.). 


Year(s) 


Event 


1965-1974 

1966 

1967 

1967 or 1968 

1968 or 1970 
1969-1970 

1970s 


1 970s-1980s 
1971 


1972 


1972 or 1973 

1973 

1973- 1975 

1974- 1979 
1975 


Approximately 27 shrimp boats are working out of Marathon, over 300 shrimp 
boats are working out of Key West. 

Alligator Alley is completed. The Miami Canal is deepened. 

Hurricane Inez. 

C-111 Canal is constructed. 

Algae bloom associated with the Gulf Loop current and water coming from the 
north observed off Everglades City. 

Bad lobster catch year. 

In the winter, cold water from Florida Bay kills many of the corals at Hens and 
Chickens Reef, an inshore patch reef. 

Miami's sewage outfall extends out to deeper water. 

Early crawfish are so thick in Biscayne Bay that men use a light at night to gig 
them from a skiff. 

You can go up Taylor River (slough) in a boat. 

The water at Mallory docks and in Key West Harbor is clear. 

Mid 1970s, powerheads become popular in the Keys. 

In the late 1970s, water clarity starts going bad, coral reefs start to decline 
throughout the middle and lower Keys. 

Short-lived green algae blooms observed in the water column at Marquesas. 
Begins to be an increase in the rolling moss brown algae in western Florida Bay. 
Tourism and land development are at a fevered pitch. Steady increase in the 
population in the Keys and steady increase in water/boat use. 

Steady population growth in the Keys causes steady growth in water usage 
rate. 

Population of diadema starts to decline. 

A daily bag limit of ten queen conch is established. 

Mid 1970s, lobster traps at Red Bay Bank covered with green slimy algae and 
filled with "rolling moss’ brown algae. 

Late, "watched as areas of traditionally pristine water develop a green tinge" 
in the west Florida Bay area. 

Mid to late, increase in live aboard Cuban sponge boat population. 

Green filamentous algae bloom observed north of Big Pine Key at the rockpile. 
Re-occurs every summer afterward for short periods of time. 

Late, areas of traditionally pristine water develop a green tinge in the west 
Florida Bay area. 

Can clearly see a lobster trap in 30-40 feet of water in Hawk's channel. 

Key Largo National Marine Sanctuary is established. 

Indian Key bought by the State of Florida. 

Notice an algae bloom ten miles west of Sandy Key. 

Begin seeing a gradual change in the water clarity near Sandy Key and East 
Cape. 

Increase in the catfish catch in western Florida Bay. 

More water is moved into the Miami/South Dade area for flood control. 

Winter, water clarity on the reef in the lower Keys averages one hundred feet. 
Keys are designated an "Area of Critical Concern" by the Governor due to 
rampant development. 


89 



Table 21. Excerpts of the anecdotal and historical chronology of events that affected the marine 
environment of the Florida Keys from 1714 to the present prepared by The Nature Conservancy 
(text as found in draft document except for minor editing) [DeMaria (in press)] (cont.). 


Year(s) 

Event 

1975-1976 

Coral bleaching observed on some patch reefs of the lower Keys in Hawk's 
Channel. 

1976 

A state report says that the individual lobster catches are down but the total 
take of lobster in the Keys has actually increased. 

1 977 

Federal fishery councils are formed. 

June, the harvest of fire coral, hard coral, and sea fans prohibited in Federal 
waters under the Continental Shelf Act (struck down in Court in 1979). 

October, the UN designates the Everglades National Park an International 
Biosphere Reserve. 

Hard freeze, considered to be the last real cold spell. Cold water fish die-off, 
staghorn coral die-off in several shallow waters areas including the Tortugas. 

1977-1978 

1978 

Shrimpers notice a significant lower catch. It is also an extremely dry year. 

Red algae bloom observed south and west of Cape Sable. 

Key West Coast Guard opens. 

1978 or 1979 

Summertime, Zestra Barrel sponges and other large sponges in Big Pine Key 
Shoals die off. 

1979 

October, Everglades National Park is designated a World Heritage Site. 

Work on a new and improved road and bridge system is begun in Monroe County. 
Area south and southwest of Cape Sable and west of Sand Key is a lush 
seagrass area (this is the area to be called the Dead Zone in the late 1980's by 
commercial fishers). 

Halodule seagrass beds in northeast Florida Bay replaced by turtle grass. 

The development of macro algae blooms starts in west Florida Bay 

The use of Lorans becomes popular in the Keys. 

1979-1981 

1980 

Electric reels in use. 

April to June, the Mariel Boatlift results in an influx of Cuban exiles to the 
Keys. 

June, very hot August, canal water temperatures near 94°F. Fish are on the 
surface on their sides (possibly due to oxygen depletion). Some minor coral 
bleaching. 

1980-1985 

1980s 

A lot of mullet caught in Florida Bay have 'tumors* on them. 

Early, the water in Hawk's Channel starts becoming ’dirty*. 

Drug money flows into the Keys; development increases; more commercial 
boats, commercial gear, and recreational speed boats. 

Short-lived green algae blooms observed in the water column off Marquesas. 
Improvements are made to canals surrounding agricultural areas. Water 
management changed. Reduced deer herd in conservation areas. 

1 981 

Middle 1980s, significant increase in the population of the Keys. 

Middle 1980s, an increase in moonjellies is observed throughout the Keys. 

Water clarity in west Florida Bay starts to decline. 

Looe Key National Marine Sanctuary is created. 

1981 or 1982 

1981-1986 

New Seven Mile Bridge is finished. FKAA water line capacity triples. 

Pea green colored water observed at Rabbit Key Basin. 

Decline of western Florida was gradual. 


90 



Table 21. Excerpts of the anecdotal and historical chronology of events that affected the marine 
environment of the Florida Keys from 1714 to the present prepared by The Nature Conservancy 
(text as found in draft document except for minor editing) [DeMaria (in press)] (cont.). 


Year(s) 


Event 


1982 


1983 

1983-1984 

1984 

1985 


Around 1982, John Stevely (Sarasota Sea Grant agent) and wife encounter a 
pea soup green algae bloom at Rabbit Key that allows for less than six inches of 
visibility. 

Many shrimp boats are being sold due to fishing regulations. 

Ricordia coral on top of Looe Key. By 1985/86, the Ricordia moves out of the 
direct flow of water moving over Looe Key and into the areas where there is 
cooler water. 

Hot weather and warm water, sponge dieoff bayside of Grassy Key and Long 
Key (yellow and wool sponges). 

July, coral bleaching observed in the lower Keys from Looe Key to Western Dry 
Rocks. 

Start of seagrass die off west of Sandy Key. Diadema (sea urchin) dieoff in 
Florida, the Bahamas and the Caribbean (lasted a year). 

Area of green water observed in Plantation Yacht Harbor and near the Coast 
Guard Station. 

Juvenile conch released at Pennekamp. 

Water clarity becomes noticeably bad; corresponds to the completion of the 
new bridges. 

Water clarity in the shallow water area starts to decline. Prior to 1983, water 
along Keys described as ‘gin clear". 

State fishery council is formed. 

Army Corps of Engineers starts to draw down the L-31W canal due to increase 
in water going into Shark River Slough. 

Longsnout butterfly fish become displaced; move to deeper water. Crinoids 
disappear from the shallow waters off the lower Keys. 

Disappearance of crinoids on the reef in the Lower Keys. 

Freighter Mini Laurel grounds at Molasses Reef. 

Beginning 1984, there is a 4% loss of coral cover at Looe Key and Key Largo. 
Queen conch declared a protected species. 

South Florida Water Management District changes to a more natural way of 
water control management. 

Hurricanes Elena and Kate cause the fragmentation of corals, especially 
staghorn and elkhorn varieties. 

Approximately 750 full-time Keys' commercial crawfishers. Cubans represent 
50% in Key West, 5% in the lower Keys, 15% in the middle Keys, and 20% in 
the upper Keys. 

Sponge disease/blight hits the Mediterranean. 

Conch moratorium (the taking or harvesting of conch is prohibited). 

The productive shrimping area moved to the west. It used to start at Smith 
shoals. Now the productive shrimp area starts at New Ground, northwest of 
Marquesas. 

A brown, slimy, grass-like algae bloom observed all throughout the water 
column at Tortugas. 

Large areas of seagrass die off observed in western Florida Bay. Also, a change 
in the kind of algae blooms is observed. 


91 



Table 21. Excerpts of the anecdotal and historical chronology of events that affected the marine 
environment of the Florida Keys from 1714 to the present prepared by The Nature Conservancy 
(text as found in draft document except for minor editing) [DeMaria (in press)] (cont.). 


Year(s) 

Event 

1985-1986 

Large areas of seagrass die-off near Johnson Key and East Bahia Honda. 

Outbreak of black band disease at the Sambos. 

1 986 

Change in water clarity observed off 

Marathon, bayside and oceanside. 

Start catching less fish in the Sprigger Bank area. ‘The gorgonians died then the 
water went to hell and turned muddy, no clarity.’ 

January, all commercial fishing prohibited in the Everglades National Park. 
March, water temperature off Key West is 46°F. 

In May, outbreak of black band disease at Looe Key. 

Change in water clarity becomes noticeable off the lower Keys. 

1986-1987 From July to June, there was a 40% decrease from the average in 
the shrimp catch on the Tortugas grounds. 

Good year for crawfish catch in west Florida Bay. 

1 987 

January, had very low tides. 

In June, period of slick calm, hot water. Coral turned off color. Significant 
coral bleaching in the Florida Keys. 

In June and July, low oxygen content in the waters of Florida Bay. 

August, coral bleaching observed and documented throughout the Caribbean. 
Scallops moved into the area called the ‘smokehouse’ near Smith Shoals and the 
shrimp moved out. In 1992, shrimp return to that area and the scallops 
disappear. 

Practically every fishhouse in Key West area up for sale due to high land prices 
and the demand for marinas for yachts. 

Fall, seagrass (turtle grass) dieoff in Florida Bay is documented in the Rankin 
Lake, Cross Bank and Rabbit Key area. 

Fall, algae bloom observed at Sprigger Key up to Oxfoot Bank. 

In October, coral bleaching observed throughout the IndoPacific. 

One of the hottest winters on record. 

1987 or 1988 

1987-1988 

Water clarity and quality decline in Florida bay begins to become more severe. 
Worms and barnacles on wooden traps begin to cause serious problems. 
Phenomenal year for crawfish catch in west Florida Bay. 

1987-1990 

Scientific evidence shows a significant increase in the adult queen conch on the 
reef. Concurrently, there is a significant decrease in juveniles in the seagrass 
areas. 

1988 

Big outbreak of sea lice in south Florida. 

August, the C-111 canal (Aerojet Canal) plug is pulled. Two weeks of 
uncontrolled fresh water flows into Barnes Sound. 

1988-1989 

October, major fish kills in the upper Keys due to release of massive amounts 
of fresh water into Barnes, Blackwater, and Florida Bays. 

Great bait shrimp year at Manatee and Barnes Sounds. Manatee Bay by 1992 is 
no longer a good shrimping area. 

Wooden traps in Tortugas start getting barnacles. 

Good lobster catch year in west Florida Bay. 

From November to January, seagrass die off observed in north Key Largo next 
to the Park boat dock at Sunset Cove. 

1988-1990 

Drought in south Florida, much seagrass decays and dies in Florida Bay. 


92 



Table 21. Excerpts of the anecdotal and historical chronology of events that affected the marine 
environment of the Florida Keys from 1714 to the present prepared by The Nature Conservancy 
(text as found in draft document except for minor editing) [DeMaria (in press)] (cont.). 


Year(s) 


Event 


1988 or 1989 


1 989 


1989*1990 

1990 


1990 or 1991 
1990-1993 

1991 


Big freeze in Southern Florida. 

Coral bleaching observed on the shallow water coral heads off of Key West. 
Begin seeing a change in the visibility in the water along the shoreline at Long 
Key Lab (bayside). 

Macroalgae bloom covered the patch reefs in Hawk's channel out to Tortugas 
Hump. 

Water restrictions placed on South Florida residents due to drought. 

East Everglades Land is added to the Everglades National Park. 

February, sewage treatment plant built in Key West. Secondary treated sewage 
goes to the ocean via the old outfall pipe. 

Summer, minor coral bleaching event, mainly hits lettuce coral in the Keys, 
Puerto Rico, and Lee Stocking Island Bahamas. The mangroves and adjacent 
shallow areas off Key West stop 'growing' and erosion from boat wakes 
become more obvious. 

Sea lice ("bathers itch") noticed off key West and the lower Keys. 

December, hard freeze in South Florida. 

Winter, big freeze kills many mangroves in the northeast Florida Bay area that 
were already stressed due to dry weather conditions. 

Low rainfall years (drought), high temperatures and hot water temperatures 
(large amount of hot water) in the Caribbean (Cuba area to the Gulf of Mexico). 
Crawfish catch in western Florida Bay declines. 

February, very low tides. 

High salinity levels are recorded in Florida Bay. 

The decline in water clarity and quality become really noticeable on the reef off 
Key West. 

In July and August, significant coral bleaching in the Keys. 65% of the fire 
coral dies. 

Hot water temperatures recorded. Coral bleaching not confined to the reef, also 
hits the patch reefs and inshore corals. 

Algae bloom observed at Cotton Key near Islamorada. 

Very fine brown/green algae bloom observed off Long Key Lab in the water 
column. 

Summer, between Man of War Harbor and Pearl Basin, north of Key West, the 
gorgonians, seafans and conchs disappear from the area. 

Green filamentous algae bloom at the Rockpile, north of Big Pine Key, starts 
becoming really bad. 

The shallow patch reefs near the small islands west of Key West have become 
undiveable due to poor water clarity. 

Chekika land is added to the Everglades National Park. 

January, "pea green' algae bloom in Florida Bay first noted by a scientist. 
Others notice bloom at Sandy Key basin and Sandy Key Bank. 

Some turtle grass starts to recover in the 'lost' areas of Florida Bay only to 
die off again. 

Diadema dieoff at Vestal Shoals, off Key West. 

South Florida Water Management District increases fresh water flow into 
Taylor Slough during April and May. 


93 



Table 21. Excerpts of the anecdotal and historical chronology of events that affected the marine 
environment of the Florida Keys from 1714 to the present prepared by The Nature Conservancy 
(text as found in draft document except for minor editing) [DeMaria (in press)] (cont.). 


Year(s) 

Event 

1991-1992 

Algae bloom in the water column at Tortugas (see 1985). 

Summer, large amounts of sargassum wash up on gulf coast shores. 

Brown macroalgae bloom observed near Tortugas Hump. 

Algae blooms in western Florida Bay become dominated by microalgae blooms. 
December, algae bloom off Long Key Lab exists for four days along the 
shoreline. All sponge harvesting is stopped in Biscayne National Park. 
Cyanobacteria algae bloom spreads throughout Florida Bay. Sponge dieoff is 
documented. Juvenile lobster abundance subsequently declines by more than 
30%. 

1991, 1992 

Good bait shrimp catches off Lower Matecumbe Key near the location of the 
algal bloom in Florida Bay. 

Summer, water "inversion" off the middle Keys out to Alligator Reef. Hot salty 
water on the bottom. White hydrogen sulfide type bubbles coming up from the 
reef. Dead fish and gorgonians observed. 

1992 

Dry Tortugas is declared a national park. 

February and March, very high tides and very low tides observed. 

May, barrel sponges observed dying on the reef off Marathon. 

May, sponge mortality in Florida Bay noted. 

Between July and September, extensive sponge mortality noted in Florida Bay. 
July, salinity levels in Florida Bay fall below sea water levels. 

August, Hurricane Andrew hits Homestead and moves west across the 
Everglades, killing mangroves and causing excess detritus to be flushed into the 
water. 

December, sponge die-off observed on the east side of Big Pine Key. 

December, algae bloom off Long Key Lab lasts for sixteen days along the 
shoreline. 

Visibility at Schooner Bank declines. 

Massive macroalgae bloom in western Florida Bay. Clogs strainers and intakes 
on boats. 

In Card Sound, a white fungus is observed growing on seagrass beds. 

Extensive sponge mortality noted between July and September in Florida Bay. 
Black band disease is observed near Jewfish Basin, north of Boca Chica Key. 

Last Marathon shrimp boat sold. Only a couple of shrimp boats still exist in 
Stock Island and Key West. 

Increase in decorator crabs observed on the bayside of Lower Matecumbe Key 
in the nearshore, shallow waters. 

Sea lice abundant. 

1992-1993 

"Tremendous amount" of moon lilies observed in Florida say and Boot Key 
Harbor. 

1993 

Winter, cannonball jellyfish observed off Key West and Marathon. 

Best bait shrimp catches are out of Card and Barnes Sound. 

From November to January, a sponge die-off is observed five miles north of 
Grassy Key. 

Winter, pea green algae bloom is observed as having crossed into the ocean. 

South Florida Water Management District increases water flow into Taylor 
Slough to a natural sheet flow. 


94 



Table 21. Excerpts of the anecdotal and historical chronology of events that affected the marine 
environment of the Florida Keys from 1714 to the present prepared by The Nature Conservancy 
(text as found in draft document except for minor editing) [DeMaria (in press)] (cont.). 


Year(s) 


Event 

January and February, green bloom water from the Bay moves over the reef. 
Before March, 'Storm of the Century', the surface water temperature off Key 
West is 75°F. Fifteen feet below the surface the water temperature is 71 °F. 
March, 'Storm of the Century* front moves from Tortugas, northeast through 
the Gulf of Mexico. Winds are clocked at 109 mph at Ft. Jefferson. 

March, population of diadema increasing in the nearshore waters off Long Key. 
March, July, and August, green phytoplankton bloom observed south of 
Marquesas, on the reef tract. Zero visibility. 

May, fishers from Duck Key tell of large pods of white and blue marlin in 1000 
feet of water. Describe the water color from stream to shore as being dark 
blue, to aquamarine, to a light blue, to a green near the shoreline. 

May, fifteen horseshoe crabs observed dead and washed into a canal system on 
the bayside of Key Largo. 

July, great Upper Mississippi River floods. 

July, coral bleaching documented at Sand Key, Rock Key, and Western Dry 
Rocks to a depth of 60 ft, and includes stony corals, sea mat, sponges, and fire 
coral. The seawater temperature at that time was 30.9°C, indicating that the 
lower Keys reef tract was experiencing thermal stress. 

August, off Key West the water is hot and coral bleaching is observed. 

'The freshwater in the canals in the southern everglades is higher than ever 
before (since 1978).' 




95 




9.5.2. The Audubon Society 


The National Audubon Society (NAS) has maintained a science center in Tavernier on Plantation 
Key since 1939. This was the first NAS field science station. NAS scientists at this facility 
have conducted ecological research in Florida Bay, the terrestrial Florida Keys, and the 
southern Everglades. Research areas and topics include wading bird ecology, migratory bird 
conservation, seagrass ecology, fish ecology, habitat conservation, forest ecology, marine 
geology, and the ecological effects of altered freshwater inflow in the Florida Bay-Everglades 
ecotone. These studies were conducted by Allen (roseate spoonbills and other research projects 
involving Florida Bay), Bancroft (white-crowned pigeon breeding and foraging ecology, overall 
Keys ecology), Bjork (roseate spoonbills nesting and feeding ecology, and effects of reduced 
water flows to Florida Bay and to the C-111 Basin), Hoffman (vegetational composition of 
Florida Bay key berms and the relationships with white-crowned Pigeons and hammock tree 
species), Lorenz (influece of freshwater inflow patterns and salinity fluctuations on fish 
assemblages in the Florida Bay - Everglades ecotone), Meeder (geological studies on Florida Bay 
sediments and bedrock), Morrison (seasonal and longer-term patterns in benthic macrophyte 
communities in Florida Bay along upper Keys, influece of freshwater inflow patterns and 
salinity fluctuations on benthic macrophyte and invertebrate assemblages in the Florida Bay 
-Everglades ecotone), Paul (reddish egrets in Florida Bay and other projects), Powell (great 
white herons studies, roseate spoonbill studies, sea grass studies, nutrient studies, coral 
studies, and others), Ross (habitat characterization study of Florida Keys, effects of Hurricane 
Andrew on upper Keys forest structure), Sprunt (wading bird studies in Florida Bay, research 
study of bald eagles, white-crowned pigeons in Florida Bay and the Bahamas), and others. 


10. OTHER EVENTS 

10.1. Mercury levels in Everglades 

Increasing Hg contamination in the Everglades has been noted in the literature (Rood et al., 
1993; Barkay et al., 1994; Guentzel et ai, 1994; Rood et al., 1994; and others). Newspapers 
and magazines have been actively reporting on this problem, attributing the Hg contamination to 
smoke stacks (Staff, Miami Herald, 1993; Zaneski, 1993; and others). Further efforts to 
understand the Hg problem continue. 

10.2. Lead in gasoline ban 

Use of alkyl lead in gasoline began after 1940 and ended in the early 1970s. 

Shen and Boyle (1987) used a sample of the coral Monastrea annularis collected 1 km from 
shore at 4 m depth at the Hens and Chickens Reef in 1978 and 1983 respectively to reconstruct 
historical industrial Pb fluxes to the ocean surface. Samples were also collected at other sites 
worldwide. This survey of stable Pb and Pb isotopes in corals from four major ocean basins 
confirms (by independent means) the previously-inferred anthropogenic dominance of Pb found 
throughout the surface ocean today, and over the past century. Shen and Boyle (1987) found 
that the Florida Keys maintained a surface water concentration of 38 pM Pb until about 1930, 
which was probably supported by shelf/resuspended Pb inputs. Levels grew gradually to a peak 
of 190 pM in 1977, followed by a decline to 142 pM in 1982. Relative to the Bermuda records, 
the Florida coral lacks a strong industrial revolution signal and exhibits a moderated post-World 
War II Pb increase and muted maximum. These patterns reflect dilution of US Pb sources and 
delayed response due to long-range horizontal transport. 

10.3. DDT and other pesticides 


96 


DDT (4,4'-DDT), or 1,1'-(2,2,2-trichloroethylidene)bis[4-chlorobenzene], was first described 
early in the century and resynthesized during the late 1930s as part of a research program at 
Geigy (Stetler, 1983). This program was a search for a contact insecticide characterized by a 
long duration of activity. Following the discovery of the pronounced insecticidal properties of 
the new agent and the registration of the first patents in 1940, the product, formulated in 
Switzerland, was introduced to the market in the spring of 1942 for use in crop protection and 
hygiene. The epidemic-promoting circumstances of World War II and the post-war years 
brought about increased and effective use of DDT in the field of medicinal hygiene. Malaria, 
typhus, typhoid fever, and cholera were drastically reduced by the effective control of 
Anopheles mosquitoes, lice, and flies of all types or, as in the case of malaria, were virtually 
eradicated in many countries. It has been estimated that almost 1 billion people in all parts of 
the world have been saved from malaria by the use of DDT. 

4,4'-DDT is metabolized by the loss of a chlorine to yield the non-insecticidal 4,4'-DDE {(1,1'- 
(dichloroethylidene)bis(4-chlorobenzene]}, and by the substitution of a chlorine by a hydrogen 
to yield 4,4'-DDD {(1,1'-(2,2-dichloroethylidene)bis[4-chlorobenzene]}. DDT and some of its 
metabolites are toxicants, with long-term persistence in soil and water. They are widely 
dispersed by erosion, runoff, and volatilization, and accumulate in adipose tissue in wildlife and 
humans. The pronounced contact activity of DDT is due to the highly lipophilic character of the 
compound, which enables it to penetrate the insect cuticle. According to some biochemical 
models, a disturbance in the sodium balance of the nerve membranes, caused by the “fit" of the 
DDT molecule, is responsible for the poisoning of the insect. Buildup of resistance to DDT is 
connected with the enzyme catalyzed conversion into inactive DDE. DDT coatings on solid 
surfaces have a considerable duration of activity. Acute mammalian toxicity is relatively 
insignificant. 

Restrictions introduced by most Western industrialized countries on the production of DDT and 
other chlorohydrocarbons at the start of the 1970s have reduced use of chemicals to a fraction 
of the original quantities. The use of DDT was banned in the US in 1972. The special situation of 
the Third World countries, however, resulted in production peaks (on a worldwide basis) as late 
as the mid-1970s. Without sufficient quantities of DDT and dieldrin, the World Health 
Organization is unable to fulfill its vector-control programs. 

In a study published in 1974, Ogden et al. (1974) found DDT, DDE, DDD, dieldrin, and PCBs in 
concentrations well below amounts known to have either acute or chronic effects on species 
from Florida Bay. Chlorinated pesticides and PCBs in melon tissue from Atlantic bottlenose 
dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and pygmy sperm whales (Kogia breviceps) collected in Florida 
Bay were determined by King (1987). 

10.4. PCBs ban 

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are widely distributed in the environment, and have no known 
natural source. PCBs were manufactured by Monsanto and were available in the US from 1930 
to 1977 as a series of mixtures of congeners called Aroclors, having different average 
compositions of congeners. PCB concentrations have also been reported as Aroclors (EPA, 
1993). There are 209 congeners, having from one to ten chlorines. Twenty of these congeners 
have non-ortho chlorine substitutions and so can attain a planar structure which makes them 
similar in structure to the highly toxic polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans 
(McKinney et al., 1985; Sericano et al., 1991). In the scientific literature, total PCB 
concentrations are often reported and these values are calculated based on the response factors 
of PCB congeners representative of each chlorination level. 


97 


10.5. Mosquito control 


From June 3 to 14, 1979, a pesticide use observation study was conducted by the National 
Enforcement Investigations Center in Monroe County (Anonymous, 1980). During the study, an 
EPA team evaluated the environmental effects resulting from the aerial application of Naled 
(Dibrom-14) and ground application of Baytex for the control of mosquitoes. A reconnaissance 
survey in March of the marine environment in the ENP revealed no pesticide residues were 
detected prior to the initiation of the mosquito control program by Monroe County. 


11. DISCUSSION 

(As this document was going to press, the Florida Bay Science Conference took place in 
Gainesville, FL. The conference proceedings contains abstracts by the major investigators 
working in Florida Bay (University of Florida and Sea Grant Florida, 1995). These abstracts are 
not included in this compilation.] 

11.1. Subject distribution of published literature 

More than 750 citations and data sources were collected during the preparation of the time line 
for Florida Bay. Of these, 599 were published works on Florida Bay. The abstracts of the 
Florida Bay citations in chronological order are in Appendix I. The other collected works include 
citations to historical events, global phenomena and other topics. The subject distribution of the 
Florida Bay citations is listed in Table 22 and shown in Figures 14 and 15. It should be noted 
that often the same authors publish several papers using the same study results and these were 
counted as separate publications. Some papers summarize large data sets and these have been 
counted as a single publication. Some papers are very short and general in nature and were 
included for completeness. 

The geology of Florida Bay has been well characterized. Approximately one third of the 
citations found are on the geology of the area. Most papers discussed the evolution of the Bay 
and the formation and stratification of sediments. Little information was found on pollutant 
levels in sediments. The climate and oceanography of the Bay are covered. It is known that 
unpublished sources of oceanographic data exist. Some aspects of the biology of Florida Bay are 
well covered. Almost half of the citations founds cover biology. The largest number of citations 
on fauna are on fish and Crustacea. There were few citations on marine mammals. 

11.2. Time lines 

The chloronological sequence (time line) by date of sampling (if known) or in the case of 
calculated or inferred parameters, by the earliest date determined, are listed in Appendix I and 
II and shown in the figures in Appendix III. Geological studies describing formation of geological 
features in the area are listed by publication date. It has been surprising that a large number of 
citations, including thesis and dissertations, do not list sampling dates. It is obvious that the 
number of citations has increased steadily with time. 

Few papers on seagrasses in Florida Bay were found published prior to the dieoff. The best 
source of information about dieoffs prior to the late 1980s dieoff is the anecdotal data collected 
by DeMaria (1994). It must be remembered that simply because little information about 
instances of seagrass dieoffs prior to the late 1980s have been found, does not mean that these 
did not occur. They were simply either not recorded in the printed forms examined thus far, 
the dieoffs occurred prior to interest in adverse environmental phenomena and so were not 


98 


Table 22. Subject distribution of published citations on Florida Bay included in this study. 


General papers 
Climatology 
Geology (total) 

Field guides 5 

General 1 6 

Evolution/development/stratigraphy 2 3 

Sea level rise 6 

Sediments/Sedimentation 59 

Sediment and interstitial water chemistry/composition 31 

Mudbanks and basins 2 0 

Peats 1 o 

Hydrography and suspended particulates 
Water chemistry 


Freshwater management and soil subsidence 
Biology (total) 


General 

Microorganisms 

Flora (total) 

General 

4 

Algae 

1 0 

Seagrass 

37 

Mangroves 

1 3 

Fauna (total) 

General 

7 

Corals 

1 6 

Echinoderms 

3 

Crust 

69 

Fish 

81 

Birds 

1 9 

Reptiles 

25 

Mammals 

14 


Pollutant studies 
Related studies 


1 9 
1 9 
170 


1 6 
1 4 
1 1 
339 


6 
1 5 


Total 


610 




Related studies 



Figure 14. Distribution of citations by subject. 



Corals, Amphipods, Fish Mammals 

sponges, shrimp, crabs, 

mollusks lobster 

Subject 

Figure 15. Distribution of citations on fauna by subject. 


100 
























recorded, and/or individuals with knowledge of such dieoffs have not come forward. There is 
evidence that the seagrass dieoffs and other adverse environmental effects, such as coral 
disease may be related to temperature extremes, especially if the affected biota is under 
stress due to high or low salinity. 

Also included in the time line in Appendix III are the dates of significant events and legislature 
related to or affecting Florida Bay. 

11.3. Information needs in Florida Bay 

There is insufficient or no information on several types of data necessary to adequately 
describe the current status of Florida Bay and any changes that may be the result of the 
increased fresh water flow into the area. Determination of baselines of these parameters is 
needed. The data needs include suspended particulates; pollutant levels; nutrient loadings; 
marine mammal population; and others. Also further search of historical records in the Florida 
Keys may supplement the anecdotal information collected by The Nature Conservancy. 

12. CONCLUSIONS 

Although the case cannot be proven since little data is available prior to the flow restrictions, 
the decreased freshwater flow into Florida Bay may be only one of the causes of the changes in 
the Florida Bay ecosystem. The ideal goal for the restoration of the South Florida ecosystem is 
to restore to predrainage conditions. The restored ecosystem should be resilient to chronic 
stresses and catastrophic events with as little human intervention as possible (Science 
Subgroup Report, 1993). 

The predrainage conditions of the Florida Bay ecosystem are not well characterized. 

Left alone, the Bay ecosystem will become a balanced system, probably different from the 
one present prior to man's influence in the region. 

An increase in freshwater flow in the ENP will shift the present ecosystem, resulting in 
dieoffs and shifts in species distribution until a balance is once again achieved. 

Global weather cycles may affect the Bay as changes in temperature and rainfall in the area 
or upstream will have an impact. These cycles may be longer than the time observations 
available. There may be a delay in ecosystem response to variations in solar fluctuations 
and global weather patterns. 


The effect of hurricanes to the South Florida ecosystem can be considerable yet the 
ecosystem recovers within a few years. These storms, however, may be part of the 
tropical ecosystem just as fires have been shown to be part of forest ecosystems. 

There is anecdotal evidence of seagrass dieoffs prior to the construction of the drainage 
canals. The cause of these dieoffs, however, may be different from those found at present. 

The construction of the railroad to Key West and the subsequent construction of the 
highway were the first changes to the water flow pattern between Florida Bay and the 
Florida Straits. Such flow cannot be reestablished. 


101 


There is anecdotal evidence of dieoffs at times of extreme temperatures (cold winters or 
hot summers).* 


13. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The authors wish to thank T. Armentano, M. Bello, W. Bock, R. Brock, J. Browder, A. Bunn, R. 
Cohen, F. Decker, R S. D'Angelo, P. Dye, M. Gibson, R. Halley, D. Harris, G. Maul, D. Morrison, 
P. Ortner, W. Seaman, H. Stanford, G. Thayer, N. Thompson, R. Torstenson, D. Wolfe, and C. 
Woody for their assistance in obtaining information and publications used in the preparation of 
this document. Also special thanks to D. Harris and W. Lancaster for their considerable 
assistance in xeroxing, scanning, and proof reading, and for their many trips to the library, 
and to K. McMahon for editing. 


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Anonymous (1994) Interagency Spatial Data Workshop for the South Florida Ecosystem. 
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Bancroft, G. T., A. M. Strong, R. J. Sawicki, W. Hoffman, and S. D. Jewell (1994) Relationships 
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* 

During 1982, high temperatures were reported in the summer, and anecdotal reports of dieoffs of seagrasses, sponges and 
coral were observed (DeMaria, 1994). 


102 







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Brier, G. W., K. Hanson, and G. A. Maul (1989) Significant periodicities in El Nino occurrences. 
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103 










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Wilderness Society (1969) Jetport and the Everglades. The Living Wilderness . 33(105):13-20. 

Wilson, R. M. (1989) On the statistics of El Nino occurrences and the relationship of El Nino to 
volcanic and solar/geomagnetic activity. NASA Tech, paper 2948. NASA, Scientific and 
Technical Division, Washington, DC. 54 pp. 

Winter, A., H. Erlenkeuser, R. Zahn, and R. Dunbar (1994) A 270 year annual stable isotope 
record from the eastern Caribbean. Abs., ASLO/PSA Joint Mtg., Miami, FL. a-83. 

Windhorn, S., and W. Langley (1974) Yesterday's Florida Kevs . E. A. Seemann Publ. Inc., Miami, 
FL. 

Wolf, S. M. (1988) Pollution Law Handbook: A Guide to Federal Environmental Laws . Quorum 
Books, New York. 282 pp. 

Zaneski, C. T. (1993) Mercury controls proposed for incinerators. The Miami Herald . February 
13, 1993. 

Zieman, J. C., J. Fourqurean, M. B. Robblee, M. Durako, P. Carlson, and G. Powell (1988) A 
catastrophic die-off of seagrasses in Florida Bay and Everglades National Park. EOS Trans. . 
69:1111. 


112 













Zieman, J. C., J. W. Fourqurean, and R. L. Iverson (1989) Distribution, abundance and 
productivity of seagrasses and macroalgae in Florida Bay. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical 
Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci.. 44(1 ):292-311. 

Zieman, J. C., R. Davis, and J. W. Fourqurean (1992) The role of climate in the Florida Bay 
seagrass dieoff. Bull. Ecol. Soc. America . 73(2):398. 

Zieman, J. C., R. Davis, J. W. Fourqurean, and M. B. Robblee (1994) The role of climate in the 
Florida Bay seagrass dieoff. Bull. Mar. Sci.. 54(3): 1088. 









































APPENDIX! 


Abstracts in chronological sequence of published studies about Florida Bay 


Chronological sequence is by date of sampling (if known) or in the case of calculated or inferred 
parameters by the earliest date determined. Geological studies describing formation of 
geological features in the area are listed by publication date. Publication date of a paper or 
report are noted with a diamond next to the year of publication. The study dates are listed in 
Appendix II and are shown in a common time line in Appendix III. Related papers/reports are 
listed at the end of this section. Abstracts/summaries/conclusions listed are as provided by 
the author, with minor modifications, unless noted. In cases where a copy of the paper/report 
could not be found, this is noted or the abstract found in Schmidt (1991) was listed. All 
citations in Appendix I are listed in Appendix IV. Author and subject indices are provided after 
the Appendices. 


1700 - 1983 

Shen, G. T., and E. A. Boyle (1987) Lead in corals: reconstruction of historical industrial 

fluxes to the surface ocean. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. . 82:289-304. 

Twentieth century environmental Pb chronologies for the western North Atlantic, 
Pacific, and Indian Oceans were reconstructed from annually-banded scleractinian 
corals. The skeletal Pb concentrations in a Montastrea annularis specimen from Florida 
Bay were determined from 1700 to 1983. This survey of lattice-bound stable Pb and 
Pb isotopes in corals from four major ocean basins confirms (by independent means) 
the previously-inferred anthropogenic dominance of Pb found throughout the surface 
ocean today, and over the past century. Perturbations were observable in all specimens 
studied, attesting to global augmentation of environmental Pb by industrialization. In the 
western North Atlantic, Pb perturbations have occurred in direct response to the 
American industrial revolution and the subsequent introduction and phasing-out of alkyl 
Pb additives in gasoline. Surface ocean conditions near Bermuda may be reliably 
reconstructed from the coral data via a Pb distribution coefficient of 2.3 for the 
species, Diploria strigosa. Based on 210 Pb measurements, a similar distribution 
coefficient may be characteristic of corals in general. Surface Pb concentrations in the 
pre-industrial Sargasso Sea were about 15-20 pM. Concentrations rose to near 90 pM 
by 1923 as a result of metals manufacture and fossil fuel combustion. Beginning in the 
late 1940's, increased utilization of leaded gasoline eventually led to a peak 
concentration of 240 pM in 1971, representing an approximate 15-fold increase over 
background. Surface ocean concentrations are presently declining rapidly (128 pM in 
1984) as a result of curtailed alkyl Pb usage. Lead isotopic shifts parallel the 
concentration record indicating that characteristic industrial and alkyl Pb source 
signatures have not changed appreciably over time. Samples of the coral Montastrea 
annularis collected 1 km from shore at 4 m depth at the Hens and Chickens Reef in 1978 
and 1983 respectively were used to reconstruct historical industrial Pb fluxes to the 
ocean surface. Industrial releases recorded in the Florida Keys reflect a weaker source 
and evidence of recirculated Pb (5 - 6 yrs old) from the North Atlantic subtropical 
gyre. An inferred background concentration of 38 pM suggests influence of shelf and/or 
resuspended inputs of Pb to these coastal waters. 


1 1 5 



1825 - 1968 

Thomas, T. T. (1970) A detailed analysis of climatological and hydrological records of 
south Florida with reference to man's influence upon ecosystem evolution. Final Rep. to the 
NPS. Contr. DI-NPS-14-10-1-160-18. Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric 
Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL. 89 pp. 

An attempt has been made to summarize the historical climatological records of 
southern Florida, south of latitude 29° N. Rainfall and temperature records were 
obtained for 157 stations within this region. The records covered the period from 1825 
to 1968. Calculations determined that a minimum of seven years data per station was 
required to obtain statistically valid monthly and annual averages, but that the 10 - 15 
yrs, suggested by Sass were more suitable. Using monthly and annual averages 
calculated for 119 stations, many of which dated prior to 1900 synoptic maps, were 
constructed displaying the geographical distribution of these two climatic variables. 
From statistical inference, i.e. averages, standard deviations and coefficients of 
variation, areas with similar characteristics were isolated and reduced to a single 
monthly time series record varying from 50 to 70 yrs in length and analyzed for 
evidence of long term changes as well as cyclical behavior. This analysis suggests that 
no long term changes have occurred when independently considering all the Januarys, 
Februarys, Marches, etc., but that from a standpoint of a linear record by month, by 
years a bi-annual component appears as well as one in the proximity of five years. This 
five year component seems to be most pronounced in the area along the eastern coastal 
ridge, disappearing in areas west and north-west of it. The results of this analysis are 
considered with respect to changes in the elevation of the freshwater table due to 
man's influence, the natural rise in sea level due to deglaciation, and the mechanism 
effecting changes in estuarine and near shore salinities. 

1879 - 1977 

Schmidt, T. W., and G. E. Davis (1978) A summary of estuarine and marine water quality 
information collected in Everglades National Park, Biscayne National Monument, and 
adjacent estuaries from 1879 to 1977. Rep. T-519. US National Park Service, Everglades 
National Park, Homestead, FL. 59 pp. 

For the purposes of this report, the South Florida area was divided into four drainage 
systems based on climate, physiography, freshwater runoff-salinity dilution dynamics, 
and the influence of man: (1) Big Cypress, (2) Everglades, (3) Taylor Slough, and the 
(4) Southeastern Atlantic Coastal Ridge. The estuaries and coastal waters were divided 
into six zones based on physiography and watershed: (1) Big Cypress estuary, (2) 
Everglades estuary, (3) Florida Bay, (4) Barnes Sound, and Card Sound, (5) southern 
Biscayne Bay, and (6) northern coral reef tract. The central Everglades drainage 
comprises over three-fourths of the region upstream from Whitewater Bay and the 
southeastern Gulf of Mexico estuaries. To the west and east, the Big Cypress and 
Taylor Slough watersheds flow into the Big Cypress estuaries and Florida Bay 
respectively. These three estuaries are each approximately 1,000 km in size. The 
remaining watershed southeast of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge influences the much 
smaller systems of Card-Barnes Sounds, southern Biscayne Bay, and to a lesser 
extent, the northern coral reef track east of the upper Florida Keys. To protect and 
perpetuate the biotic communities in these aquatic ecosystems in a natural state, it is 
necessary to be able to evaluate the effects of watershed management on the estuaries 
and to detect contamination from adjacent systems. A comprehensive water quality 
monitoring system is needed to provide the information to make such evaluations. This 
report summarizes many published and unpublished reports of water quality 
information in Everglades National Park, Biscayne National Monument, and adjacent 
estuaries as the first step in the design, development, and implementation of a 
comprehensive monitoring system. Most of these data were collected in conjunction 
with short-term multi-disciplinary investigations. A total of 55 hydrographic studies 


1 1 6 


dating from 1879 to the present are summarized. Over half of the studies were 
conducted for a period of one year or less; less than 40% between one and five years; 
and only 6% were over five years in duration. Twenty-three studies were conducted 
in Florida Bay, 17 in the Everglades estuary, 16 in southern Biscayne Bay, 14 in Card - 
Barnes Sound, 7 in the Big Cypress estuary, and five in the area of the northern coral 
reef tract. A total of 981 coastal water quality stations were identified from 47 
studies reporting specific station locations. In decreasing order, the most frequently 
measured water quality parameters from the 55 studies were salinity (87%), water 
temperature (74%), dissolved oxygen (38%), pH (26%), turbidity (11%), and 
chemical constituents (8%). A summary of variations and minimum and maximum 
values of these parameters is included. The greatest variations in salinity occur in 
Florida Bay. During the intensive drought periods of 1965-66 and 1974-75, salinities 
varied along the northern Florida Bay shoreline from 0 to 67 %o and 1 to 67 %o 
respectively. The highest coastal salinity known in the region, 70 °/oo was recorded in 
Snake Bight (Florida Bay) during the 1954 drought period. Water temperatures ranged 
between 11 and 42°C. Temperatures ranged from 11°C near the Buttonwood Canal to 
40°C over the shallow eastern Florida Bay mud flats while temperatures in southern 
Biscayne Bay varied from 11°C to about 42°C in waters near the influence of the 
Turkey Point Power Plant. Dissolved oxygen concentrations ranged from 0 to 15 ppm. 
The lowest values were recorded during peak periods of freshwater runoff in river 
headwaters and northeast Florida Bay, and in north central Florida Bay during the late 
summer dieoff of seagrasses. The highest value (15 %o) of record was observed over 
a shallow water, shoalgrass-algal community in western Florida Bay. The most 
extensive coastal dissolved oxygen analyses (diel observations) were recorded in the 
Everglades estuary. The Florida Bay waters also showed the greatest variations in 
recorded pH values. Coastal pH values ranged from 5.8 over the shallow western 
Florida Bay seagrass flats to 9.6 over the mid-bay, shallow water algal beds. These pH 
and dissolved oxygen values reflected the peak periods of respiratory and 
photosynthetic activity, respectively. Turbidities fluctuated from 0 to 73 FTU. In 
Florida Bay, turbidity ranged from 0.3 FTU, offshore in the western portions of the Bay 
and along the eastern boundary near Key Largo, to 53 - 73 FTU near the northern 
Florida Bay coastline. Consistently low values of 0 - 3 FTU were reported in the 
Everglades estuary and in southern Biscayne Bay. Several investigations reported 
chemical data for selected drainage basins. These publications give the range of 
variation, minima-maxima over occasionally very irregular sampling periods. 
Constituents of particular importance are those that have exceeded recommended 
levels which constitute a hazard in the marine environment as determined by EPA and 
include the following: NH 4 + , Al, As, Fe, Cu, Mn, Hg, F, Mg, and Ca. 

1881 - 1982 

Smith, T. J., J. H. Hudson, M. B. Robblee, G. V. N. Powell, and P. J. Isdale(1989) 
Freshwater flow from the Everglades to Florida Bay: a historical reconstruction based on 
fluorescent banding in the coral Solenastrea bournoni. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical 
Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1 ):274-82. 

Fluorescent banding was found in a core taken from a 1-nn high colony of the coral 
Solenastrea bournoni which was growing in the Petersen Key Basin region of Florida 
Bay in 1986. Fluorescent banding in massive, hermatypic corals from the Great Barrier 
Reef, Australia, is known to result from the input of fulvic and humic compounds of 
terrestrial origin into the nearshore environment via river runoff. Relationships 
between the fluorescent banding pattern in the Solenastrea skeleton and flow in Shark 
River Slough (SRS) and Taylor Slough (TS), the two major outlets of freshwater from 
the Everglades, were investigated. These relationships were then used to hindcast flow 
for the period 1881 - 1939. In hindcasting flow in SRS, 57.2% of the variance in annual 


117 



flow could be recovered from the fluorescent record, based on the period 1961 - 1986. 
When the model was tested on a validation sample (known SRS flow for 1940 - 1960), 
approximately 45% of the interannual variation was explained. The fluorescence record 
showed a sustained, marked decline which began about 1912 and ended around 1931. 
Fluorescence is significantly higher (P < 0.001) early in the record (pre 1932) than 
late in the record (1932 and later). Based on the significant relationship between 
fluorescence and SRS flow, this decrease is interpreted as recording decreased 
freshwater flow from the Everglades into Florida Bay and adjacent waters, perhaps by 
as much as 59%. The onset of decreased flow corresponded with the timing of 
construction of the extensive network of drainage canals to the east and south of Lake 
Okeechobee. These canals diverted water into the Atlantic Ocean which would normally 
have flowed into the Everglades from Lake Okeechobee. 

1895 - 1989 

Hanson, K., and G. A. Maul (1991) Florida precipitation and the Pacific El Nino, 1895-1989. 

Fla. Sci. . 54(3/4): 160-8. 

This study identifies rainfall anomalies, timed with major El Nino events, in seven 
climatic divisions of Florida. The study also determines the statistical significance of 
these rainfall anomalies. The seasonal and annual climatology of rainfall is presented 
for seven climatic divisions of the state for the period 1895 to 1989. Periodogram 
analysis indicates 5 to 6 yr variability in rainfall throughout most of Florida, in 
particular during winter and spring. Super-posed epoch analysis, utilizing only rainfall 
during the year prior to and concurrent with a major El Nino, shows that state-wide 
rainfall anomalies are timed with these Pacific events. The most significant anomalies 
are: (1) below normal rainfall over all of the state during winter and spring the second 
year of an El Nino; and (2) above normal rainfall over all of the state during winter and 
spring the second year of an El Nino. Largest rainfall anomalies have occurred in the 
southern climatic divisions of Florida. During winters of the second year of El Nino 
south Florida rainfall anomalies range from +76 to +94 mm (+3.0 to +3.7 in) depending 
on the climatic division. These anomalies are 45 to 66 percent above normal winter 
rainfall, and are significant at the 0.999 level. 

1905 - 1976 

DeGrove, J. M. (1983) History of water management in South Florida. In: Environments of 

South Florida: Present and Past II. P. J. Gleason (ed.). Miami Geological Society, Coral 

Gables, FL. 22-7. 

This paper describes the history of water management in South Florida from early 
efforts to secure federal assistance for the project during 1845 to 1850 to legislation 
passed in 1975 and 1976. 


1908 

Vaughan, T. W. (1910) A contribution to the geological history of peninsular Florida. 

Carnegie Inst. Publ. 133. Carnegie Institution, Washington, DC. 185 pp. 

This citation describes the geological history of the Florida Plateau as of 1910. The 
work contains descriptions of sampling expeditions to Florida Bay, the Florida Keys, 
Biscayne Bay, Card Sound, Barnes Sound, Blackwater Sound, Hoodoo Sound and the 
Bahamas in 1908 to collect sediment samples. The samples were found to be mostly 
silica and "carbonate of lime" (CaC0 3 ). Silica was abundant in the form of sand in the 
northern portion of Biscayne Bay, becoming rarer toward the southwest. It was 
present in small quantities as far as Big Pine Key. Towards the southwest, as the 
siliceous material became rarer, calcium carbonate became progressively more 
abundant, occurring as a flocculent sediment or ooze over practically the entire region 
from the lower portion of Biscayne Bay to the gulf end of Florida Bay. 


1 1 8 



1908 - 1994 

Swart, P. K., P. Kramer, J. J. Leder, R. B. Halley, and J. H. Hudson (1994) A 120 year 
record of natural and anthropogenic variations in Florida Bay based on oxygen and carbon 
isotopic variations in a coral Solenastrea bournoni. Bull. Mar. ScL 54(3): 1085. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY.] The unusual occurrence of a specimen of Solenastrea bournoni 
within Lignumvitae basin in Florida Bay has allowed us to use stable O and C isotopes to 
investigate the effect of anthropogenic activities and natural phenomena (hurricanes) 
upon the water circulation in the area. This coral shows a marked increase in the 6 ie O 
and a decrease in the 8 13 C around 1908 - 1910 coincident with the infilling of passages 
between adjacent keys during the construction of the railway from Miami to Key West. 
The addition of fill between the Keys allowed increased evaporation (higher 5 ie O) and 
limited the exchange of 5 13 C depleted waters with the Florida Reef tract. Since 1910, 
major hurricanes have had the effect of breaking down this isolation and causing the 
basin to return temporarily to more marine conditions producing an enrichment of 5 13 C 
and a depletion in 5 18 0. From 1946 to 1964, the carbon isotopic composition of the 
coral became increasingly negative reflecting the lack of hurricanes during this period. 
After three hurricanes in 1964, 1965 and 1966, during which the 5 13 C became 
heavier, this trend continued to the present day. The increase is not seen in the 5 18 0 as 
the water in the Bay is already at equilibrium with the atmosphere and increasing 
evaporation does not act to increase the isotopic composition of the water. Although 
there are only limited salinity measurements available for the Bay over this period, 
those that do not exist appear to correlate extremely well with the oxygen isotopic 
record and support our interpretation that the 5 ie O of the coral records previous 
salinity levels in Florida Bay. [NOTE: Data prior to 1908 not discussed in abstract.] 

1910 - 1986 

Hudson, J. H., G. V. N. Powell, M. E. Robblee, and T. J. Smith (1989) A 107-year-old coral 
from Florida Bay: barometer of natural and man-induced catastrophes? Symp. on Florida 
Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1 ):283-91. 

The 107-yr growth history of a massive coral Solenastrea bournoni from Lignumvitae 
Basin was reconstructed with x-ray imagery from a single 4-in diameter (10 cm) core 
that penetrated the exact epicenter of the 95.3-cm high colony. The growth record core 
was collected in October 1986, and another 'proof' core was drilled 1 yr later to 
verify annual density banding in this species. Growth increments totaled 952.9 mm, 
averaging 8.9 mm yr' 1 over the life of the coral. To our knowledge, this is the first 
time that growth rate of S. bournoni has been determined. Growth rate trends in the 
Florida Bay coral were compared to those in a Montastraea annularis of similar age 
from Hen and Chickens, a nearby patch reef on the Atlantic Ocean side of the Florida 
Keys. Both corals were rated as potential indicators of natural and man-induced 
perturbations by comparing their growth rates in years of severe environmental stress 
to each coral's long-term growth rate average. It was concluded that growth rate, at 
least in these specimens, is a questionable indicator of past hurricanes and freezes. 
There does appear to be, however, a possible cause-and-effect relationship between 
major man-induced environmental perturbations and a prolonged reduction in growth 
rate in each coral's growth record. 

1912 - 1988 

Wanless, H. R., R. W. Parkinson, and L. P. Tedesco (1994) Sea level control on stability of 
Everglades wetlands. Everglades: The Ecosystem and Its Restoration . S. M. Davis and J. C. 
Ogden (eds.) St. Lucie Press, Delray Beach, FL. 199-223. 

The expansive coastal wetlands and freshwater marsh of south Florida are a result of 
the very slow relative rise of sea level during the past 3200 yrs (average rate of 4 cm 


1 1 9 





100 yr' 1 ). Prior to that time, relative sea level was rising at a rate of 23 - 50 cm 100 
yr 1 , too fast for coastal swamp, marl, or sand environments to stabilize along south 
Florida's coastlines. The establishment of a broad, coastal wetland during the past 3200 
yrs has provided a natural barrier to marine waters and permitted freshwater 
environments of the Everglades to expand. Tide gauges throughout the US record a 
dramatic increase in the rate of relative sea level rise beginning about 1930. During the 
following 60 yrs, the relative rise in sea level for south Florida has averaged 3-4 mm 
yr* 1 (equivalent to 20 - 40 cm 100 yr' 1 ). This rate is 6 - 10 times that of the past 
3200 yrs and is triggering dramatic changes in the coastal wetland communities, 
including accelerated erosion of shore margins, landward encroachment of marine 
wetlands, and saltwater encroachment of surficial and ground waters. Continuation at 
these rates or acceleration, as expected due to global warming, will cause dramatic to 
catastrophic modifications of both the coastal and freshwater wetlands of south Florida. 
Major hurricanes will cause dramatic steps of erosion as well as overstepping of 
coastal wetland margins. 

1913 - 1984 

Stephens, J. C. (1984) Subsidence of organic soils in the Florida Everglades - a review and 
update. Environments of Sout h F l o rid a ; Pre sent and Pa st II. P. J. Gleason (ed.). Miami 
Geological Society, Coral Gables, FL. 22-7. 

The Everglades contains the largest single tract of organic soils in the world, over 
3,100 square miles. Formed under marshy conditions, they subsided when drained by 
compaction, biochemical oxidation, or burning. The first elevations of surface 
subsidence profiles were started in 1913, and in the early 1930s, lines were added at 
the Everglades Experiment Station where land use and treatment could be controlled. 
Altogether 15 lines were established, and 11 were still surveyed by 1984. Those 
abandoned have been negated by construction or subsided until the organic cover 
disappeared and underlying mineral deposits were exposed. Biochemical oxidation has 
accounted for approximately two-thirds of the total loss of the arable soils in the 
Everglades. Subsidence has had serious environmental effects on agriculture, water 
supplies, and wildlife. Flooding the land in Conservation Areas will halt subsidence, and 
losses on arable lands can be ameliorated by maintaining water tables as high as 
feasible, making productive use of drained lands as soon as possible, and increasing 
research. 

1919 - 1989 

Meeder, J. F., and L. B. Meeder (1989) Hurricanes in Florida Bay: a dominant physical 
process. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. 
Sci. . 44( 1):518. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY.] Hurricanes produce major ecological perturbations important to 
long term maintenance of the Florida Bay ecosystem. The effects of hurricanes on the 
Bay ecosystem are described and contrasted to the effects of fire in south Florida 
terrestrial ecosystems. Just as the importance of fires has been recognized in the 
management of terrestrial ecosystems, the role of hurricanes on coastal and shallow 
bay communities must also be recognized. Many perturbations produced by hurricanes 
are uncontrollable and, therefore their impact on the Florida Bay ecosystem has 
remained unaltered by man's activities. Alteration of hurricane runoff quantity and 
timing, quality of runoff water and tidal exchange rates are major exceptions. Intense 
periods of rapid runoff appear to be very significant in maintaining the Florida Bay 
ecosystem. Physical processes associated with hurricanes are: rainfall, storm tides, 
extreme wind and waves, and outwash. Although predicting the precise effects of any 
hurricane is difficult, several observations are made after analysis of storm data since 
1971: (1) a total of 95 tropical storms have affected the Florida Bay ecosystem (20 


120 




major storms); (2) nearly 50% of all the storms fell with three general tracts 
(vectors); (3) of 39 storms analyzed since 1916, rainfall from individual storms made 
up 1.7 to 14% of annual rainfall; (4) storms from different vectors produced different 
rainfall characteristics; and (5) 11 storms from two vectors produced more than twice 
as much rain as other storms (averaging 213 mm). From these observations, two 
generalizations can be made: storms that affect the Bay bottom and coastline occur at 
reasonably predictable intervals of one every 3 - 5 yrs and storms which produce 
extreme freshwater runoff occur once every 6-7 yrs. The significance of tropical 
storms becomes apparent when these frequencies are understood. 


1920 0 

Simpson, C. T. (1920) In Florida Waters . G. P. Putnam's Sons., New York. 404 pp. 

(DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This book is an account of a 
naturalist's observations on the life, physical geography, and geology of the tropical 
part of the state of Florida. The author lived in South Florida from 1882 until the 
1920s. During this time he "thoroughly explored the territory described in this volume, 
both as a collector and a general naturalist." He notes, "To-day most of its hammocks 
are destroyed, the streams are being dredged out and deepened, the Everglades are 
nearly drained; even the pine forests are being cut down. At the time when I first 
resided in the State, flamingoes, roseate spoonbills, scarlet ibises, and the beautiful 
plumed herons were abundant. Deer and otter could be seen at any time and the west 
coast waters were alive with immense schools of mullet and other fish, while manatee 
were not rare. The streams and swamps were full of alligators; in fact the wonderful 
fauna of our region filled the land and the waters everywhere. It seemed to me fitting 
that some record of this life should be made, in view of the fact that it is so rapidly 
disappearing - and forever." Simpson's work covers the Florida Keys, the Ten Thousand 
Islands, Cape Sable, the Everglades south coast, the mangrove shore, and other inland 
areas. 

1920 - 1960 

Wade, R. A. (1962) The tarpon, Megalops atlanticus, and the ox-eye, Megalops 

cyprinioides, emphasizing larval development. M. S.. Thesis, University of Miami., Coral 

Gables, FL. 168 pp. 

The distribution of the genus Megalops in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans briefly 
discussed. Colloquial names for both species are given. Materials and methods of 
collection and study of the larval and juvenile specimens from the DANA, GILL and TOTO 
cruises and miscellaneous collections obtained from 1920 to 1960 for North Carolina, 
Florida, Cuba, Haiti, and Puerto Rico are summarized. Florida Bay specimens were 
collected in 1957. Stages were designated for the purpose of describing the unusual 
post-larval development of Megalops. Characters found useful in separating the two 
species were eye diameter, prepelvic length, fin-ray and myomere counts. A 
developmental series consisting of seven Stage-1, 11 Stage-11, 217 Stage-ll I A, and 221 
Stage-1 MB specimens of Megalops atlanticus and 69 Stage-1, 15 Stage-ll, and 5 Stage- 
IIIA specimens of M. cyprinoides ranging in size from 11.0 mm to 311.0 mm is 
presented and representative specimens are described and figured. This is the first 
time that Stage-1 specimens of M. cyprinoides were available for study. Indices and 
graphs of gross morphological changes occurring during development are presented. The 
majority of obvious body proportions in Stages I, II, and III A show allometry with 
reference to head length and standard length, all the proportions becoming isometric in 
Stage III. The geographical distribution of the material studied and records from the 
literature are presented. The known range of M. atlanticus includes the middle and 
southern Atlantic states, Gulf states, the Caribbean Sea, the Bahamas, and the northern 
and eastern coasts of South America to Brazil. The known range of M. cyprinoides 


121 



extends from Tahiti, Society Islands to Durban, South Africa. Records of tarpon beyond 
their normal range are discussed. Occurrence of the larval material studied suggests 
that both species of the genus Megalops spawn in offshore waters nearly paralleling the 
range of the adults. Habitat, behavior, relationship to salinity, temperature, natural 
enemies, red tide, sport fishing qualities, and economic value are discussed. 

1920 - 1960 

Wade, R. A. (1962) The biology of the tarpon, Megalops atlanticus, and the ox-eye, 
Megalops cyprinoides, with emphasis on larval development. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf and 
Caribb. . 12:545-622. 

[SAMPLES OBTAINED FROM MULTIPLE SOURCES.] The larval and juvenile development 
of the tarpon, Megalops atlanticus, and the ox-eye, Megalops cyprinoides, are 
compared. A developmental series was compiled from the plankton specimens and 
material obtained from many sources, from 1920 to 1960, representing the following 
periods or stages of development: larval (Stage I, Stage II, Stage III A, Stage III B), and 
juvenile. The series is illustrated and described; and changes in form are discussed, in 
particular those characters useful in separating the two species. The geographical 
distribution of the material studied and records from the literature are presented. The 
biology of both species is discussed including habitat, behavior, relationship to physical 
and chemical factors, natural enemies and sport fishing qualities. 

1923, 1981 - 1984 [intermittent years] 

Powell, G. V. N., and A. H. Powell (1986) Reproduction by great white herons Ardea 
herodias in Florida Bay as an indicator of habitat quality. Biol. Conservation . 36:101-13. 
Reproduction parameters of great white herons were used to evaluate the habitat 
quality of eastern Florida Bay. Clutch size and reproductivity of the herons during three 
breeding seasons (1981 - 1984) were compared with similar data from 1923 which 
predated suspected human alteration of the Bay ecosystem. In addition, since about 
15% of the great white herons nesting in eastern Florida Bay supplemented their diet 
with food obtained from people, it was possible to evaluate the impact of food 
availability on reproduction. Herons fed naturally in Florida Bay (unsupplemented) had 
significantly smaller clutches and reproduced significantly fewer fledglings than those 
of 1923. Herons that received supplemental food had reproductive parameters similar 
to those of 1923. This may indicate a reduction of habitat quality since 1923. The 
results supported the prediction that wading bird reproduction can be sensitive to 
habitat and that these species should be useful as biological indicators for monitoring 
habitat quality. [The 1923 study was described in: Holt, E. G. (1928) The status of the 
great white heron and Wudermann's heron. Cleveland Mus. Nat. Hist. . 1:1-35.] 


1926 0 

Dimock, A. W. (1926) Florida Enchantments . New York, NY. Stokes. 338 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This book is an account of a 
sampling expedition through South Florida during the 1920s. It contains chapters on the 
capture of manatees, dolphins, crocodiles, turtles, and various species of fish. 
Although the misadventures of the author and his colleagues are humorous, the killing of 
what are now protected species is unfortunate and points out changes in environmental 
awareness. 


1928 0 

Holt, E. G. (1928) The status of the great white heron and Wurdermann's heron. Cleveland 
Mus. Nat. Hist. . 1:1-35. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE.] 


122 









1928 - 1994 

Frederick, B. C., S. Gelsanliter, J. A. Risi, and H. R. Wanless (1994) Historical evolution of 

the southwest Florida coastline and its effects on adjacent marine environments. Bull. Mar. 

Sci. . 54(3): 1074. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY.) An examination of historical aerial photography (1928 - present) 
reveals three significant types of change in the coastal/wetland environment on the 
southwest coast of Florida between Cape Sable and Chatham River: coastal erosion, 
erosion of shorelines and islands in larger interior bays, and landward expansion of 
mangrove communities. There are two types of coastal erosion. Progressive erosion 
from winter storms has affected significant portions of this west-facing coastline. 
Hurricane surges penetrating tidal creek complexes have created local patches of 
catastrophic erosion within the wetland environment. Coastlines and islands within 
larger interior bays are eroding, especially along the north and east shores. This 
erosion has resulted from both recurrent winter storm waves and episodic hurricane 
scour. Eroded sediment is largely organic and is oxidized, dissolved or transported out 
of the system. Shore erosion within bays has resulted in the expansion of tidal prisms 
and in the enlargement of channels connecting to the offshore marine environment. 
During the past 52 yrs of historical records, some mangrove community boundaries 
have remained relatively stable while others have dramatically expanded across 
adjacent transitional and freshwater marshes. As much as 86 m of landward expansion 
is recognized. Mangrove community expansion occurs by both episodic, storm¬ 
generated seedling introduction and progressive expansion. Gently sloping coastlines 
provide a setting to record the temporary advance of infringing mangrove communities 
in this wetland coastal landscape. Erosion of these coastlines is providing a significant 
volume of dissolved and particulate organics and nutrients into adjacent mangrove, 
transitional, and freshwater wetlands and into the adjacent marine environments. 
Organics and nutrients discharged into coastal marine waters are pulsed southward by 
winter storms into Florida Bay and the Florida Keys. Future global warming with 
increased rates of sea-level rise and increased frequency of hurricanes, should 
dramatically increase rates of erosion of this wetland coastline and increase the 
importance of this area as a source for organic and nutrient discharge. 


1929 0 

Cooke, C. W., and S. Mossom (1929) Geology of Florida. 1927-28. Twentieth Ann. Rep. 
Florida State Geological Survey, Tallahassee, FL. 29-228. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] The geologic 
formations that make up the Floridian Plateau were named and described in this report. 
Additionally, the general features and local details for marine formations (Miami Oolite 
and Key Largo Limestone) underlying the coastal areas of the Everglades National Park 
were discussed. 


1930 0 

Small, J. K. (1930) The vegetation and erosion on the Everglade Keys. Sc i, , M.QIL, 30:33- 
49. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The pinewoods or pinelands of 
Florida are nearly level areas of greater or lesser extent. The high pinelands are dry 
and often somewhat rolling. The low pinelands where the water table is always near the 
surface are often called "flatwoods" because of the flatness of the land. They are 
composed, according to locality or region, of one or another of the several long-lead 
pines. The undergrowth consists of saw-palmetto, shrubs, and annual and perennial 
herbs. They are often fire-swept, and consequently the soil, sand or rock is nearly or 
quite devoid of humus. The evidence furnished by the character of the surface erosion 
similar in both the hammocks and the pinelands shows that the ancient islands, now the 


123 




Everglades Keys, were formerly hammock-clad. That they were formerly more 
elevated is evidenced by the rock floor of Biscayne Bay showing the same character of 
erosion as that of the present hammocks and pinelands. The fact of this one-time 
elevation is also established by the present existence of subaqueous caverns in the 
limestone, with immense stalactites which must have been formed above the water 
table 

1934 - 1986 [intermittent years] 

Powell, G. V. N., R. D. Bjork, J. C. Ogden, R. T. Paul, A. H. Powell, and W. B. Robertson 

(1989) Population trends in some Florida Bay wading birds. Wilson Bull. . 101 (3):436-57. 
Roseate spoonbills (Ajaja ajaja), reddish egrets (Egretta rufescens), and great white 
herons (Ardea herodias occidentalis) have unique subpopulations that are largely 
restricted to Florida Bay. All three species are believed to have had relatively large 
populations in Florida Bay, but the birds were virtually extirpated from the area 
between the late 1800s and the mid-1930s by human harvesting for food and feathers. 
After the birds were protected, they reestablished small populations that initially grew 
quickly. The great white heron population in Florida Bay increased from a low of about 
20 individuals after the 1935 hurricane to a population of 800-900 resident adults in 
the early 1960s. As many as 400 additional birds (juveniles and possibly seasonal 
migrants) were present in winter censuses. The population remained at about that level 
through the 1960s after recovering from a 20 - 40% decrease caused by a 1960 
hurricane. After 1968, the population was surveyed only once, in 1984, when about 
the same number of birds were censused. The reddish egret recovered more slowly 
from total extirpation around 1935 to an estimated 200-250 adults in the late 1970s. 
Casual observations in the 1980s suggest the population has remained at about that 
level. Roseate spoonbills showed an exponential recovery from just a few individuals up 
to a maximum of 2400 breeding birds by 1978-79. Subsequent censuses (1984 - 1986) 
revealed only about 800-900 nesting adults. The virtual absence of pre-1880s data 
precludes comparing present populations with those of the pristine environment. 
However, the most recently surveyed population of each of these species seems to be 
at a lower density than was historically present. The recent decline in the spoonbill 
population and low reproductive success of the great white heron population are causes 
for concern about the future of the populations. These findings point out the importance 
of continued monitoring and analysis of population trends. This study is based on 
intermittent aerial counts of great white herons between 1935 and 1968, and in 1984; 
population estimates of reddish egrets based on ground counts 1977 and 1978; and 
counts of spoonbill nests beginning in the 1930s. During the 1960s and 1970s, the 
spoonbill population of Florida Bay was also estimated from aerial reconnaissance. 

1935 - 1989 

Wanless, H. R., and M. G. Tagett (1989) Origin, growth and evolution of carbonate 

mudbanks in Florida Bay. Symp. on Florida Bay; A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 

1987. Bull. Mar. ScL 44(1 ):454-89. 

Between 4,500 and 3,000 yrs ago, rising sea level inundated the area now known as 
Florida Bay. Coastal and freshwater peat and shore levee deposits, positioned by 
irregularities in the underlying limestone surface, were repeatedly embayed and 
overstepped during this transgression. Inundated and dissected coastal deposits then 
served as nuclei from which the present complex of Florida Bay islands, mudbanks, 
bank spits and bays evolved. Portions of the islands have maintained supratidal facies 
(peats and supratidal muds) throughout their growth history and are capped remnants 
of once laterally continuous coastal levees. Other portions are the result of supratidal 
progradation across younger mudbank buildups. Marine mudbanks nucleated on inundated 
coastal levees and mangrove peats. Mudbank cores are composed of layered mudstone 


124 




reflecting an early history dominated by physical sedimentation. There is, however, 
striking lateral gradation in bank morphology, internal stratigraphy (textural and 
compositional sequence) and bank dynamics. These reflect gradients in sediment supply, 
physical processes and biogenic communities during later Holocene flooding history. 
Four zones are recognized: (1) Inner Destructional Zone in eastern Florida Bay has 
small, discontinuous erosional mudbanks with a grainstone veneer separated by rock 
floored basins. This zone is sediment starved. (2) Central Migration Zone in central 
Florida Bay has an anastomosing maze of narrow, continuous banks dominated by 
layered mudstone sequences. These are actively migrating across a veneer of basal 
skeletal packstone on the limestone bedrock. This zone receives sufficient sediment 
supply to maintain banks. (3) Western Contructional Zone in western Florida Bay has 
very broad, actively expanding banks separated by shallow lakes containing about I m 
of molluscan wackestone. The broad banks have coalesced from smaller core banks of 
layered mudstone. Excess sediment from local production and/or detrital input has 
caused bank growth and lake infilling. (4) Outer Destructional Zone along the exposed 
western margin of Florida Bay has scattered, erosional bank remnants with layered 
mudstone cores surrounded by a barren Pleistocene limestone surface. Intense marine 
burrowing has (a) destroyed aspects of the transgressive depositional facies sequence 
in Florida Bay including much evidence of bank nucleation, and (b) blurred evidence of 
physical sedimentation during the later stages of bank development. Seagrasses are a 
dominant community covering vast portions of bank and lake sediments in Florida Bay at 
present. This study of the Bay's sediment history indicated that (a) seagrasses are now 
at a peak in their influence in Florida Bay's history, (b) they are episodically eliminated 
from much of Florida Bay, and (c) seagrasses have had only a minor to moderate 
influence on the growth and evolution of Florida Bay's mudbanks. This study was based 
on historical aerial photography beginning in 1935, description and mapping of surficial 
sediments, internal stratigraphy by core transects, and bedrock topography beneath 
the mudbanks. 

1936 - 1938 

Davis, J. H. (1940) The ecology and geologic role of mangroves in Florida. Publ. 517. 

Carnegie Institute, Washington, DC. Pap.. Tortuqas Lab. . 32:305-412. 

A fairly thorough reconnaissance of most of the Florida coasts south of 30° N latitude 
was made, and the regions for special study were chosen. Exploration was by boat, 
automobile, airplane, and on foot and was supplemented by examination of photos, maps 
and charts. From the air, zonation of the swamps and depth of the water were most 
plainly visible. No large area was neglected, so that the results are representative of 
conditions along all of the Florida coasts. The regions for study, and particularly the 
stations for special study, were chosen with regard to the types of mangrove 
communities and the evidences of land-area changes. Some of the stations were 
selected at random so as to avoid the error of choosing too many with similar 
vegetation and environmental conditions. Florida Bay was one of the five regions where 
stations were established. At each station, observations were made and data on soil, 
water and other features were recorded. [SAMPLING WAS DONE DURING THE SEASONS 
OF 1936 TO 1938 ACCORDING TO SCHMIDT (1991).] 


1940 0 

Carr, A. F. (1940) A contribution to the herpetology of Florida. University of Florida Pub., 
Biological Science Ser., 3(1):1-118. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This citation is a discussion of 
early works on the herpetology of Florida. A list of species in included. 


125 



1940 

Miller, E. M. (1940) Mortality of fishes due to cold on the southeast Florida coast, 1940. 

Ecology . 21(3):420-21. 

There was a killing cold period in South Florida January 27 - 29, 1940. Temperature 
low recorded at Miami was 36°F, at Elliott Key, 38°F, and at Key West, 50°F. First 
hand observations were made by the author at Miami and Key Largo; and reports from 
reliable fishermen were taken for the Key Largo - Key West portion of the area. Many 
fish were observed to be stunned or killed and estimates were attempted as to relative 
numbers affected. The list of the fish species affected may have been prejudiced by 
reports of fishermen who were interested in collecting only the stunned specimens 
having some food or commercial value. Nearly 1 million pounds of stunned but good 
specimens were sold during this period from Key Largo to Key West. Species reported 
were bonefish, moonfish, gray snapper, grunts, porgie, mullet, and jacks. 

1940 - 1977 

Stevely, J. M., J. C. Thompson, and R. E. Warner (1978) The biology and utilization of 

Florida's commercial sponges. Florida Sea Grant Tech, paper 8. Florida Sea Grant College 

Program, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. 45 pp. 

Since the time of the Ancient Greeks man has recognized the usefulness of the natural 
sponge. Because of their ability to absorb large amounts of water, compressable 
nature, and durability, sponges have been used for a wide variety of tasks ranging from 
washing dishes to packing instrument panels in rockets. Up until the 1940's the sponge 
fishery was one of the most valuable fisheries in Florida. However, a combination of 
disease, heavy harvesting pressure, and the introduction of synthetic sponges resulted 
in reduction of the industry to a small fraction of its former importance. Production in 

the Tarpon Springs area, the traditional center for sponging in Florida, has declined to 

extremely low levels of harvesting activity. Dade County has emerged as the center of 
the existing sponge industry. Persistence of low level sponging activities in Florida for 
the last 30 yrs indicates that the sponge industry, as it is currently structured, will 
probably not return to former production levels without specific kinds of help. This 
paper reviews the sponge fishery from several points of view, utilizing data from 
scientific literature, state and federal fishery statistics, commercial fishermen, and 

sponge processors and discusses the extent of available biological information, the 

present status of the resource, and future potential. 

1940 - 1978 

Tilmant, J. T. (1989) A history and an overview of recent trends in the fisheries of Florida 

Bay. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1):3-33. 

This paper presents a historical review and description of the fisheries of the Florida 
Bay. Documented interest in the fishery resources of Florida Bay dates from the 
earliest accounts of human activity. However, prior to the 1940's, fishing activities 
were largely subsistence oriented, providing only supplemental family income. The 
first large-scale directed fishery was for striped mullet which provided the primary 
economic support of the historic Flamingo fishing village in the 1920's. Increased 
development of south Florida, improved transportation, and population growth all led to 
increased sport fishing activities during the 1940‘s and 1950's, which increased the 
development of the commercial silver mullet and live shrimp bait fisheries. By the 
early 1970's, there were an estimated 25,000 recreational fishing trips a year to 
Florida Bay. Commercial activities reached a peak between 1977 and 1978 when over 
350 individuals held permits to guide or fish commercially using nets, hook-and-line, or 
traps. Concern for the conservation of Florida Bay's marine resources quickly followed 
the explosion of commercial and recreational use occurring in the late 1940's. Florida 
Bay was added to Everglades National Park in 1950 and, in 1951, the first special 


126 




government regulations were established to control the methods, species, and locations 
of fish harvest, although no systematic effort was made to collect accurate catch and 
harvest statistics until 1958. The National Park Service monitoring program has 
provided detailed data on the fishing effort and harvest of both commercial and 
recreational fisheries up to the present time. Five species (gray snapper, spotted 
seatrout, red drum, sheepshead and black drum) have comprised over 86% of the 
sportfish harvest since 1958. The total recreational fish harvest from Florida Bay by 
guided and non-guided parties has ranged between 700,000 and 800,000 fish per year 
since 1984. Species most frequently sought by guide fishermen include tarpon, 
bonefish, snook, spotted seatrout, gray snapper, red drum, and Spanish mackerel. 

1940 - 1987 0 

Lewis, R. R. (1987) The restoration and creation of seagrass meadows in the southeast 

United States. Fla. Mar. Res. PubL 42:153*73. 

The restoration and creation of seagrass meadows is of increasing concern in the 
southeast United States, due to large scale declines in seagrass meadow coverage. 
Researchers and environmentalists estimate that approximately one-third of the 
600,000 ha of seagrass meadows that were present in coastal Florida in the 1940's no 
longer exist. Associated declines in fisheries harvests have been documented. In 
Mississippi, 1,970 ha of seagrasses remain, representing a loss of almost two-thirds. 
Both restoration and creation of meadows have been successful in individual projects at 
sites up to 6 ha in size, but failures are common. A more analytical approach to 
successful plantings is encouraged; prior knowledge of water quality and stresses on 
existing seagrass meadows is essential, Simple transplanting with plugs from existing 
healthy meadows (particularly Thalassia testudinum plugs) is not encouraged for large- 
scale projects. The use of non-destructive sources of material for culture of planting 
units is documented and recommended. Salvage of seagrasses from areas to be 
impacted can ensure successful, non-destructive meadow restoration and creation, and 
is encouraged. 


1943 0 

Davis, J. H. (1943) The natural features of southern Florida, especially the vegetation and 
the Everglades. Fla. Geol. Surv. Bull. . 25:1-311. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This citation is a detailed 
description of the South Florida ecosystem, including the marine portion of the 
Everglades National Park. The effect of canals and dikes, probable former conditions, 
soil subsidence and land utilization as of the time of publication in 1943 are discussed. 


1944 0 

Parker, G. G., and C. W. Cooke (1944) Late Cenozoic geology of southern Florida, with a 
discussion of the ground water. Geol. Bull. 27. The Florida Geological Society, Tallahassee, 
FL. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Southern Florida gives evidence 
of repeated oscillations of sea level but of little structural deformation. The oldest 
outcropping formations are the Caloosahatchee marl, the Buckingham marl, and the 
Tamiami formation. The Caloosahatchee consists predominantly of sand and shell marl; 
the Buckingham of calcareous clay with phosphate grains; and the Tamiami of 
calcareous sandstone and sandy limestone with beds and pockets of quartz sand. Well 
records show that the Caloosahatchee marl and the Tamiami formation interfinger and 
are essentially contemporaneous, though the outcropping tongue of the Tamiami 
overlies the facies represented by the Caloosahatchee. The Buckingham marl merges 
into the Caloosahatchee. These Pliocene formations are separated from the overlying 
Pleistocene formations by an erosional unconformity which indicates that they were 


127 




above sea level during middle and late Pliocene time and earliest (Nebraskan stage) 
Pleistocene time. They may have been very slightly tilted toward the west at the time 
of their emergence. The Fort Thompson formation (including the Coffee Mill Hammock 
marl member at the top) consists of three thin marine shell beds separated from one 
another by two freshwater limestones or marls, each of the younger beds filling 
solution holes in the older. The total thickness at the type locality is about 8 ft. The 
marine beds are interpreted as deposits formed during Aftonian, Yarmouth, and 
Sangamon interglacial stages, when the region was flooded by the sea to depths 
apparently as great as 270, 215, and 100 ft. The solution holes and the freshwater 
limestones and marls apparently were formed during the Kansan and lllinoian glacial 
stages, when the sea temporarily withdrew to considerable distances below its present 
level. The Anastasia formation (predominantly sand and shells), the Key Largo 
limestone (an extinct coral reef), and the Miami oolite are contemporaneous Pleistocene 
formations which apparently accumulated on and along the southeastern coast mainly 
during the Sangamon interglacial stage and therefore are equivalent to only part of the 
Fort Thompson formation developed in the Everglades and the Caloosahatchee River 
area. The Penholoway and Talbot formations, which are coastal terrace deposits, 
consist of sand swept down from the north by longshore currents during the middle and 
late parts of the same interglacial stage. A thin shift of sand, the Pamlico formation, 
was spread over part of the shallow sea floor during a mid-Wisconsin invasion by the 
sea. The accumulation of these Pleistocene deposits to various thicknesses on the 
nearly level Pliocene surface formed a very shallow basin (the Lake Okeechobee 
Everglades depression) adjacent to highlands on the north and partly enclosed by a low 
coastal ridge of oolite on the east and a slightly higher plain on the west. The northern 
and lowest part of this basin is now occupied by Lake Okeechobee, which, before 
drainage and diking operations changed it, overflowed southward across the open 
Everglades more or less as a sheet flow that imposed an aligned drainage pattern on the 
organic deposits of the Everglades. Tests made in ground water investigations of the 
Miami area indicate that the Tamiami formation is among the most productive water 
bearing formations ever investigated by the US Geological Survey. Its coefficient of 
permeability is about 35,000, which indicates that through a section of the formation a 
mile wide and a foot thick 35,000 gallons of water a day, at 60°F, would pass through 
under a hydraulic gradient of one foot. Large areas of salty ground water in the 
northern part of the Everglades are considered to be remnants of seawater left during 
Pleistocene sea invasions and now altered by dilution with freshwater and by chemical 
reactions, mainly of the base-exchange variety, with the enclosing rocks. 

1945 - 1959, 1991 

Strong, A. M., and G. T. Bancroft (1994) Patterns of deforestation and fragmentation of 

mangrove and decidous seasonal forests in the upper Florida Keys. Bull. Mar. ScL 

54(3):795-804. 

The forested ecosystems of the Florida Keys contain a tropical flora with many species 
found nowhere else in the conterminous US. These forests have gone through three 
periods of anthropogenic perturbations resulting in forests that are smaller, more 
fragmented, and have an altered species composition. We digitized 1991 aerial 
photographs of the remaining mangrove and deciduous seasonal forests of the Upper 
Keys (Ragged Keys to Long Key) to determine the changes in forest coverage from the 
original condition [as determined from 1945 - 1959 aerial photographs]. Forty-one 
percent of the original 4,816 ha of deciduous seasonal forests and 15% of the original 
8,306 ha of mangrove forests have been cleared for development. Losses were 
greatest on those keys accessible from U.S. 1, intermediate on keys accessible from 
Rt. 905, and least on keys accessible only by boat. Mean forest size decreased from 
50.7 ha to 2.6 ha and from 67.5 ha to 28.1 ha for deciduous seasonal and mangrove 


128 



forests, respectively. The edge to area ratio for deciduous seasonal forests accessible 
by road has increased from 5.2 km km' 2 in the original condition to 269 km km' 2 
currently. The loss of forested area and increase in forest fragmentation has probably 
affected the physical condition of the forests and plant and animal populations in the 
keys. A regional approach to conservation of the keys forested ecosystems is needed to 
preserve the biodiversity of the archipelago. 

1944 - 1974 

Emiliani, C., J. H. Hudson, E. A. Shinn, and R. Y. George (1978) Oxygen and carbon isotopic 
growth record in a reef coral from the Florida Keys and a deep-sea coral from Blake Plateau. 
Science . 202:627-9. 

Carbon and oxygen isotope analysis through a 30-yr (1944 to 1974) growth of 
Montastrea annularis from Hen and Chickens Reef showed a strong yearly variation in 
the abundances of both 13 C and 18 0 and a broad inverse relationship between the two 
isotopes. Normal annual dense bands formed during the summer and were characterized 
by heavy carbon and light oxygen. 'Stress bands' were formed during particularly 
severe winters and were characterized by heavy carbon and heavy oxygen. The 
isotopic effect of Zooxanthellae metabolism dominated the temperature effect on the 
18 0/ 16 0 ratio. The isotopic results on the deep-sea solitary coral Bathypsammia 
tintinnabulum, where Zooxanthellae were nonexistent, indicated that the abundance of 
the heavy isotopes 13 C and 18 0 was inversely related to the growth rate, with both 
carbon and oxygen approaching equilibrium values with increasing skeletal age. 


1 947 

Davis, C. C. (1949) Observations of plankton taken in marine waters of Florida in 1947 and 

1948. Quart. J. Fig. Ac ed. S ci ., 12(2):67-103. 

A series of 100 samples of plankton was obtained from a number of marine localities, 
mostly along the southern east coast of Florida and in the Gulf of Mexico and adjacent 
waters. They were analyzed and the proportional numbers of various plankton 
categories was estimated. One hundred ninety seven (197) categories of plankton were 
encountered. An attempt was made whenever possible to identify the forms to species, 
but this was not always possible because of unavailability of literature, or because of 
total lack of information, specially as regards larval stages of various organisms. Each 
category is discussed separately, and the seasonal and local distribution is discussed in 
so far as the data allowed. The various species characteristic of the various 
environmental portions of the area investigated are listed, and many of them are 
thought to be of value as indicators of waters of different origin. Conversely, the 
differing plankton populations found in the different regions are thought to be of 
significance as an indication of varying, but as yet undetermined, nutritional and other 
environmental influences. The plankton data was obtained through the analysis of 
samples taken at widely scattered locations in Florida and at various times of the year, 
and is exploratory in nature. The Florida Bay sites located at Garfield Bight and off 
Shark Point were sampled in 1947. 

1947 - 1948 

Davis, C. C., and R. H. Williams (1950) Brackish water plankton of mangrove areas in 

southern Florida. Ecology . 31 (4):519-31. 

A total of 39 plankton samples from 28 mangrove-bordered inland bodies of water 
along the lower west coast and the south coast of Florida were analyzed. Salinity was 
also determined at each locality. Biologically similar areas have hardly been 
investigated previously anywhere in the world. Salinities varied from 0.61 °/oo in 
Broad River to 29.09 °/oo in Garfield Bight off Florida Bay. West coast localities were 
found to differ from south coast localities in their plankton content, probably primarily 


129 





due to isolation. On the west coast, Chokoloskee Bay, with high salinity, contained more 
species than other west coast localities, and the species were more of the oceanic type 
than those elsewhere. The five bays with the lowest salinities contained a good 
proportion of freshwater types. Bays with intermediate salinities were more closely 
similar to Chokoloskee Bay than to the freshed bodies of water. On the south coast, the 
plankton content of the open Florida Bay and similar bodies of water differed from that 
of the more enclosed lakes in many respects. The lakes are isolated by independent 
drainage systems into two groups, and this fact was clearly shown in specific plankton 
differences. Within each group of lakes, differences of plankton content occurred. These 
differences probably were associated most closely with salinity differences. Free 
swimming parasitic copepods, tychopelagic species, and abundant larval forms were 
encountered. 

1947 - 1957 

Tabb, D. C. (1963) A summary of existing information on the fresh-water, brackish-water 
and marine ecology of the Florida Everglades region in relation to fresh-water needs of 
Everglades National Park. ML No.63609. The Marine Laboratory, University of Miami, 
Coral Gables, FL. 85 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This report 
reviews the literature (published and unpublished) on Everglades water studies in 
relation to the water supply problems of Everglades National Park. Based on the 
examination of over 400 references pertaining in some way to the problem, it was 
found that there have been pronounced changes in water level, water supply, and water 
dispersal in and around the park; that major changes in the water shed took place prior 
to the finalization of the park boundary in 1947, and that the park biota had adjusted to 
these changes by that time. Results also showed that, although the park cannot be 
returned to pre-drainage conditions, there should be sufficient water during most years 
to maintain the park ecology at the 1947 - 1957 level. Hypersaline conditions and the 
effects of the reduction of freshwater runoff to Florida Bay was discussed. It was 
concluded that the National Park Service should undertake immediately, biological and 
ecological studies on the problems discussed. 


1 949 

King, J. E. (1949) A preliminary report on the plankton of the west coast of Florida. Quart. 
J. Fla. Acad. Sci, . 12(2): 109-37. 

At intervals from November 1946 to September 1947, the Gulf coastal waters of 
southwest Florida were discolored by the tremendous abundance of the dinoflagellate 
Gymnodinium brevis, a species new to science. This condition, called 'red tide", was 
accompanied by heavy mortality of fish and invertebrates. The purpose of this paper is 
to describe in general the plankton forms characteristic of coastal waters of Florida, 
specifically the dinoflagellates and copepods. One site was sampled in Florida Bay just 
off Matecumbe Key in 1949. 

1949 - 1950 

Moore, J. C. (1951) The status of the manatee in the Everglades National Park, with notes 
on its natural history. J. Mamm. . 32(1):22-36. 

This citation is a description of the status of manatees in the Everglades National Park. 
Accounts of observations of manatee behavior from various sources are discussed. 


1 30 





1949 - 1951 

Moore, J. C. (1953) The crocodile in the Everglades National Park. Copeia. 1953(1 ):54-9. 
This citation is a review of the status of the American crocodile and is based on 
observations by the authors from 1949 to 1951, and on intermittent observations from 
other sources from 1900 to 1951. 

1949 - 1955 

Moore, J. C. (1956) Observations of manatees in aggregations. Amer. Muse. Nov. . 

1811:1-24. 

The difficulties of observing wild manatees under ordinary circumstances were found 
to be substantial and were considered to explain the absence of any previous report of 
systematized field observations. Natural cold-induced aggregations of wild manatees 
were found to provide favorable circumstances for field observations. Identification of 
individuals by means of scars permitted recognition of some of them five and a quarter 
years after first identification. The study took place from 1949 to 1955. During the 
last winter season of observations, 1954 - 1955, in 10 aggregations, 57 marked 
individuals were recognized and 195 individuals were estimated to have been present. 
Some of these evidently reside in the vicinity at least during the winter season. And of 
these some appear to move in for the winter season, possibly taking part in a seasonal 
migration. Presence or absence of barnacles and algae on the skin indicates that some 
individuals reside in freshwater up river, others in the saline waters of the Bay. 
Pattern of attendance of aggregations by marked individuals suggests that their ranges 
were dispersed and reveals no evidence of social organization. Mothers with young 
were not accompanied by other individuals. Groups within the aggregations engaged in 
play. The muzzle-to-muzzle contact between individuals involves lifting snouts above 
the surface, perhaps as relict behavior inherited from territorial ancestors. The 
usually observed courtship behavior was of a male approaching, nuzzling, "embracing", 
and presenting its venter to some presumed female, which most frequently turned 
away or swam off before courtship proceeded further. Of the identifiable sample of 65 
individuals about 15% were recorded as inmatures and 15% as calves, each closely 
accompanying an adult. The relative sizes of calves and other evidence suggests lack of 
any distinct breeding season. Annual reproduction by adult females is questioned. Young 
sometimes rode on mother's back. Suckling took place in horizontal position, under 
water, without embrace. Very young calves swam only with flippers. Adults ordinarily 
swam only with tail, but only one adult regularly used its flippers also. 

1952 - 1954 

Ginsburg, R. N. (1956) Environmental relationships of grain size and constituent particles in 

some south Florida carbonate sediments. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull, . 40(10):2384-427. 
In the southern extension of the Florida peninsula variations in the ! submarine 
topography, areal geography, and hydrography which control the distribution of 
sediment-producing organisms are reflected in the grain size and constituent particle of 
the calcareous sediments being deposited. Two major environments can be recognized: 
(1) a curving band-shaped reef tract with good water circulation, and (2) Florida Bay, 
a very shallow triangular area with semi-restricted water circulation. Florida Bay 
sediments have larger proportions of particles less than 1/8 mm than the sediments of 
the reef tract. The constituent particle composition of the fraction larger than 1/8 mm 
in Florida Bay is almost exclusively molluscan and foraminiferal, but in the same size 
fraction of the reef tract sediments fragments of algae and corals are abundant. Similar 
distinctions in grain size and constituent particles for comparable environments can be 
derived from published data for the sediments around Andros Island Bahamas. In Florida 
Bay large local variations in physical environment obscure the expected effects of 
differences in environment from one part of the Bay to another, and no distinct sub- 


131 





environments could be recognized from the gross grain size and constituent particle 
composition. However, in the reef tract local variations of environment are smaller, 
and the gradual but consistent changes in depth and water circulation effect differences 
in the fauna and flora, and thereby produce sediments which have recognizably 
different abundances of the major constituent. The three sub-environments, back reef, 
outer reef arc, and fore reef are indicated by progressive changes in constituent 
composition, and in less degree by variations in gross grain size. Because the estimates 
of constituent particle composition of the reef-tract sediments were made by point 
counts on standard petrographic thin sections this approach can be used to analyze 
ancient limestones. 

1952 - 1979 

Lew, R. M., M. D. Flora, and P. C. Rosendahl (1982) An analysis of rainfall in Shark Slough. 

Rep. T-646. US National Park Service, Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 46 pp. 
Thiessen polygon analysis was used to estimate direct rainfall inputs into the 1000 km 2 
Shark River Slough. Previous methods used to monitor precipitation in this region were 
reviewed. Comparisons were made between estimates based data collected biweekly 
during a 22 month period (December 1977 - September 1979) among rain gauge 
networks containing 87, 29, 11 and 3 gauges. These results were also compared with 
data collected daily at three long-term NOAA stations located on the periphery of the 
study area. A comparison between managed surface water inflows and uncontrolled 
precipitation contributions to the slough during this time was also made. Data from the 
three long-term NOAA stations were further used to compute a reconstruction of direct 
rainfall inputs into the slough on a monthly and yearly basis for the period 1952 to 
1979. 

1953 0 

Moore, J. C. (1953) Distribution of marine mammals in Florida. Amer. Midi. Nat. . 

49:1 17-58. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This citation contains 
descriptions of observations, strandings, and finds of dead specimens of marine 
mammals in Florida waters. There are several descriptions of such events in the 
Florida Keys and Florida Bay. 


1 953 

Moore, W. E. (1957) Ecology of recent foraminifera in northern Florida Keys. Bull. Amer. 

Assoc. Petrol. Geol. . 41:727-41. 

[SAMPLING TOOK PLACE PRIOR TO AND INCLUDING 1953.] Foraminifera live in the 
following environments in the Florida Keys area: Florida Bay, water 0 - 10 ft deep; the 
back-reef, water mostly 15 - 30 ft deep but ranging from 0 to 40 ft deep; the reef, 
locally awash at low tide but extending seaward to a depth of about 60 ft; and the fore¬ 
reef water deeper than 60 ft The boundaries between the back-reef and the reef and 
between the reef and the fore-reef environments are transitional. The Florida Bay 
samples were collected in Swash Key, South Park Key Bank, Nest Key Pass, Black 
Betsy Keys, and Calusa Keys. The Florida Bay environment is characterized by great 
variations in the abundance of the Miliolidae, Peneroplidae, Nonionidae, and Rotaliidae, 
and by the absence of the Amphisteginiclae, Textulariidae, Lagenidae, and Buliminidae. 
Variations in the Florida Bay fauna suggest sorting. The Amphisteginindae and 
Buliminidae represent families present in the back-reef environment which are not 
found in Florida Bay. The Peneroplidae and Amphisteginidae are most abundant on the 
outer reef patches. The fore-reef environment is characterized by the appearance of 
the Cassidulinidae and the rise of the Anomalinade to a position of minor abundance. 
Angulogerina, Bulimia, Unigerina and Reusella do not occur at depths much shallower 





than 150 ft. These environments may be recognized and differentiated by noting the 
relative abundance of individuals belonging to the various families without regard to the 
species or genera involved. 

1953 - 1954 

Ginsburg, R. N., L. B. Isham, S. J. Bein, and J. Kuperberg (1954) Laminated algal sediments 
of South Florida and their recognition in the fossil record. Final Rep. 54-20 to the National 
Science Foundation from the Marine Laboratory, University of Miami., Coral Gables, FL. 33 
pp. + Figs. 

(DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Laminated structures in 
calcareous rocks (stromatolites) which are abundant in the Pre-Cambrian and Paleozoic 
have been interpreted as algal from their gross morphologic similarities with modern 
forms. In order to develop more rigorous criteria of algal origin, to determine what 
class of algae were responsible for these structures, and to assess their environmental 
significance, laminated sediments forming in South Florida intertidal zones were 
studied. The sediments consist of alternately dark and light colored laminae of the order 
of a millimeter in thickness. The light laminae are fine-grained detrital sediment, and 
the darker ones contain varying amounts of algal debris. Definitely recognizable calcium 
carbonate precipitated as a result of algal photosynthesis is not quantitatively 
important in these deposits. A variety of structures such as domes, bubbles, 
undulations, and unconformities, all on several scales, are produced by differential 
sedimentation, preferential algal growth and sediment binding, configuration of the 
substrate, and desiccation. The laminations are formed by the alternation of heavy 
sedimentation with the growth of a mat of blue-green algae and associated organisms. 
Two end member types of organic mats and sediments are described, one from the 
rocky platforms of the open intertidal zone, and one from the intermittently flooded 
mud flats. The distinction between the two is based on the relative and absolute 
thickness of the mats and sediment laminae, structures, and grain size. Reference 
horizons of quartz grains which were established at several localities showed that the 
laminae are not necessarily annual and that their time value is variable and also 
depends on environments Criteria for the recognition of ancient stromatolites as 
deposits of this type are based on the presence of detrital sediment, and of structures 
which required a sediment-binding surface film. Because these recent algal-laminated 
sediments are limited to within a few feet of mean sea level, stromatolites of this type 
are perhaps the most reliable organic indicator of sea level available. Furthermore, 
because of the relationship between the properties and structures of the sediments and 
environment, they may provide useful geographic information. Study sites included 
Manatee Basin, Crane Key, and rocky platforms in the lower Florida Keys. 

1953 - 1958 

Turney, W. J., and B. F. Perkins (1972) Molluscan distribution in Florida Bay. Sedimenta III . 
R. N. Ginsburg (ed.) Univ. of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, 
Miami, FL. 37 pp. 

[THIS STUDY FIRST APPEARED IN SHELL OIL COMPANY REPORTS IN 1958 AND WAS 
REVISED FOR PUBLICATION IN THIS WORK. SAMPLING DATES WERE REPORTED IN 
SCHMIDT (1991) AS 1953 - 1958.] Within Florida Bay, four subenvironments can be 
recognized by the physical characteristics of salinity and variability of salinity, water 
circulation, and wind. The Northern Subenvironment is characterized by low and 
variable salinities due to freshwater runoff from the Florida mainland. The Interior 
Subenvironment is characterized by restricted circulation and is relatively unaffected 
by tidal exchange with either the Gulf of Mexico or the Atlantic Ocean. It is subject to 
large salinity variations due to seasonal or annual climatic variations. The Atlantic 
Subenvironment has near-normal marine salinity, with mixing of waters with the 


133 



Atlantic Ocean through tidal passes in the Florida Keys. The Gulf Subenvironment has 
near-normal marine salinity, but its position in a wind and current 'shadow' causes its 
waters to be more stagnant than those in the Atlantic Subenvironment. The fauna of 
Florida Bay is dominantly molluscan, principally gastropods and bivalves which are 
represented by approximately 100 genera and 140 recognized species. A few ’index 
species* and several 'consistently common species' define four molluscan suites whose 
distributions appear to be controlled by the environmental influences characterizing the 
four subenvironments. Molluscan debris comprises 58 to 95% of the sediment particles 
greater than 1/8 mm. It is believed that the disintegration process is almost entirely 
organic and effected by crabs, boring sponges, perforating algae, holothurians, worms, 
and Thalassia roots. Thin-shelled bivalves tend to break down more rapidly than thick 
shelled bivalves and gastropods. 


1954 0 

Galtsoff, P. (Coordinator) (1954) Gulf of Mexico: Its origin, waters and marine life. Fish. 
Bull. . 55(89): 1 -604. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This citation is a detailed 
description of the Gulf of Mexico. The chapter topics are: history, geology, marine 
meteorology, physical and chemical oceanography, plant and animals communities, and 
pollution. Florida Bay is briefly discussed in several chapters. 

1954 - 1955 

Kilby, J. D. and D. K. Caldwell (1955) A list of fishes from the southern tip of the Florida 
peninsula. Quail J. F la. Acad, Sci., 18:195-206. 

This paper describes fish collections conducted in 1954 and 1955 at sites with the 
Everglades National Park, Whitewater Bay and Florida Bay. The Florida Bay stations 
were at the end of Snake Bight canal and at Flamingo. Short descriptions of each 
collection site and species found are included in the paper. 

1954 - 1957 

Finucane, J. H., and A. Dragovich (1959) Counts of red tide organisms, Gymnodinium 
breve, and associated oceanographic data from Florida West coast, 1954-1957. Spec. Sci. 
Rep. Fish. No. 289. Fish & Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. 202-95. 

This report presents original data giving enumerations of the red tide organism, 
Gymnodinium breve, and associated chemical and hydrographic data for the period from 
February 1954 to July 1957. Methods for collecting and analyzing samples are 
described. The citation contains counts of G. breve, data on salinity, pH, Cu, inorganic 
phosphorus, total phosphate, nitrate-nitrite, carbohydrates, and protein equivalents. 
These data were collected as part of a study on the distribution and incidence of G. 
breve and related ecological conditions. 

1954 - 1957 

Finucane, J. H. (1964) Distribution and seasonal occurrence of Gymnodinum breve on the 
west coast of Florida 1954-57. Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish. No. 487. US Fish, and Wildlife Service, 
Washington, DC. 14 pp. 

The distribution and seasonal occurrence of Gymnodinium breve, the Florida red-tide 
organism, was recorded for a 4-yr period in estuarine and neritic waters along the 
Florida west coast. G. breve was found throughout the year in the area from Tarpon 
Springs south to the Florida Everglades. Blooms of this dinoflagellate occurred mainly 
from September through December in 1954 and 1957. Essentially, both 1955 and 1956 
were not red-tide years. The observed salinities, temperatures, and distribution of G. 
breve are presented during both bloom and non-bloom periods. 


134 



1956 - 1958 

McCallum, J. S., and K. W. Stockman (1961) Salinity of Florida Bay. Amer. Assoc. 

Petroleum Geol. Symp., Denver, CO. 78. (Abs.). 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] 
These authors made extensive bimonthly collections at 75 stations in eastern Florida 
Bay during an unusually dry year from December 1956 to December 1957, and found 
salinities as high as 58 °/oo. When normal rains returned in 1958, salinities were again 
on the brackish side. Comparing their data to rainfall records from previous years, the 
authors concluded that Florida Bay undergoes a cyclic alternation of brackish to 
hypersaline to brackish water in response to variations in rainfall. It was determined 
that in order to have runoff into Florida Bay there must be enough rainfall to raise the 
mainland water table to above that of Bay level. 


1957 0 

Ginsburg, R. N. (1957) Early diagenesis and lithification of shallow-water carbonate 
sediments in south Florida. Soc. Econ. Paleo. and Miner. Spec. Pub. No. 5. 80-99. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Diagenesis and lithification 
include processes which convert sediment into rock. They are of special importance to 
the study of limestones because of the ease with which they modify texture, structure, 
and composition of carbonate sediments The intense physical, chemical and biological 
processes which operate during deposition and within the first few feet of burial 
comprise early diagenesis. Subsequent processes are of longer duration and less 
intensity, and often, as in silicification and dolomitization, they obscure previous 
sediment properties, both depositional and early diagenetic. In contrast, the early phase 
does not generally mask original sediment properties, and often its effects may be just 
as indicative of the sedimentary environment as depositional features. Physico¬ 
chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate in the shallow tropical seas occurs under 
extreme conditions of temperature, salinity and nucleation. It may also take place 
within submarine sediments, but apparently not as a lithifying cement. Petrographic 
comparison of lithification of the late Pleistocene Miami Oolite with that of the 
Mississippian Fredonia Oolite suggests that cementation occurred in both cases only 
after removal from the marine environment. Unlithified carbonate sediments found well 
below the surface on some Pacific atolls support this view. Examples of the processes 
discussed are provided mostly from the eastern Florida Bay: Nest Key, Crane Key, 
Swash Key, and Calusa Key. 

1957 - 1959 

Tabb, D. C., D. L. Dubrow, and R. B. Manning (1959) Hydrographic data from the inshore 
bays and estuaries of Everglades National Park, Florida. 1957 - 1959. Rep. ML No.59253. 
The Marine Laboratory, University of Miami., Coral Gables, FL. 26 pp. 

A study of the ecology of the estuarine waters of northern Florida Bay was conducted 
from 1957 to 1959. Surface and bottom temperatures and salinities, dissolved oxygen, 
percent saturation of dissolved oxygen, pH and tide stage were recorded. 

1957 - 1960 

Tabb, D. C., and R. B. Manning (1961) A checklist of the flora and fauna of northern Florida 
Bay and adjacent brackish waters of the Florida Mainland collected during the period July, 
1957 through September, 1960. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf and Caribb. . 11 (4):552-649. 

Four hundred thirty two species of plants, invertebrate animals and fish are reported 
from the marine and brackish-water areas of northern Florida Bay and adjacent 
estuaries. Notes on their abundance, tolerance to change in the physical environment, 
and distribution in relation to habitat are included. This work was done in order that 
their fluctuations in distribution and abundance in a natural environment might be better 


135 



understood. This information could eventually aid in interpreting changes in populations 
due to man-made alterations in shallow water. 

1957 - 1962 

Tabb, D. C., D. L. Dubrow, and R. B. Manning (1962) The ecology of northern Florida Bay 

and adjacent estuaries. State of Florida Board of Conservation Tech. Ser. 39. Institute of 

Marine Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL. 79 pp. 

This paper discusses some aspects of the ecosystem of Whitewater, Coot and Florida 
Bays. The sampling stations in Florida Bay were located from Cape Sable to Flamingo. 
Sampling occurred from 1957 to 1960. Winds of the Cape Sable region blow mainly 
from the east and southeast in summer and from the north-to-northwest in winter, 
with some influence being exerted by the easterly trade winds of winter which 
moderate the effects of polar air masses. Winds are the major factor in water 
circulation in Florida Bay. Tides generated by winds often exceed those due to lunar 
influence. Wind-generated turbulence is the major cause of the normally high rates of 
calcium carbonate mud turbidities in Florida Bay. Winds blowing across Florida Bay aid 
in evaporation. This has been shown to average more than 0.3 in day' 1 in evaporating 
pans during the period March through July, 1961. Lunar tides in the estuarine portions 
of the study area and the nearby Gulf of Mexico are the mixed semi-daily type. At the 
end of the normal rainy season, June through November, there is marked decrease in 
air and water temperature. Just prior to that time, organic decomposition reaches a 
peak, causing a corresponding low dissolved oxygen content in the swamps and lagoons. 
This oxygen deficiency drives fish and invertebrates from the affected areas. This has 
been called the "bad water* period by commercial fishermen who often made good 
catches at that time. These oxygen deficiencies generally last about one month. Salinity 
values within the area fluctuate with rainfall and runoff from the watershed. No clearly 
defined relationship can be observed between salinity and local precipitation. In Florida 
Bay east of Flamingo were tidal circulation is absent or negligible, evaporation was 
nearly was important in salinity variations as runoff. The waters of the survey area 
generally show saturation of dissolved oxygen during the daylight hours and slightly 
below saturation at night. Highest oxygen values occur in areas of greatest plant 
growth, with Florida Bay turtle grass beds and the algae beds of Whitewater Bay being 
most productive. Lowest oxygen concentrations were always found in Coot Bay and 
eastern Whitewater Bay during the late summer and fall when runoff was highest and 
when plant cover was least dense. During periods of peak runoff there is usually a 
gradient in dissolved oxygen corresponding to the salinity gradient in Whitewater Bay. 
Total oxygen depletion was observed immediately following hurricane Donna of 
September, 1960, with conditions remaining between 80 and 37% saturation in Coot 
and southeastern Whitewater Bay, into October. By December, 1960, all stations had 
returned to near 100% saturation. The annual range of pH observed was normally 
between 7.7 and 8.2, with low values of 7.5 occurring during periods of oxygen 
depletion. Leaching of humic acids from the mangrove swamps had little effect on pH of 
adjoining bays. Runoff from the swamps produced pH values 0.5 to 0.8 units lower than 
the nearby bay water. The muds in the upper two centimeters of the bottom had pH 
values of the overlying water. At times, the diurnal range of pH was as great as the 
annual range. The normal daily range of pH was between 0.2 and 0.4 units. Turbidity in 
Florida Bay was specially severe along the shore of the upper Florida Keys and East 
Cape Sable. The heaviest turbidities were caused by the prevailing southeast winds and 
reach a peak concurrent with the period of defoliation of Thalassia testudinum in late 
summer. The turbidity was almost exclusively caused by fine particles of calcium 
carbonate marl in suspension. The invertebrate fauna of Florida Bay east and south of 
Flamingo is largely derived from the Carolinian-Gulf of Mexico faunal provinces. An 
examination of 355 species of invertebrate animals found in Biscayne Bay and Florida 
Bay produced only 15 species that were common to both areas, or 4.2% of the total 


136 


number. The few Antillean forms that do occur in Florida Bay are found normally only 
along the edge of Florida Bay where it mixes with waters of the Straits of Florida and 
the Gulf of Mexico. Generally, the Antillean faunal elements are confined to waters 
having stable salinity and a high degree of clarity. Many of the common animals of the 
study area are extremely rare or absent in day time collections. The flora and fauna of 
the study area are regulated seasonally by temperature and salinity changes. However, 
the region has been divided into major habitats based on substratum characteristics as 
well. The inshore mudbanks and supratidal marl prairies support an impoverished biota 
able to survive the extremes of heat, cold and desiccation that prevail in those areas. 
The majority of the animals are burrowing forms that live in the upper layers of marl 
mud in the intertidal zone, under debris in the shore drift or construct deep burrows to 
water in the supratidal area. The turtle grass beds of the Florida Bay mudbanks form 
the largest single community restricted to a somewhat uniform substratum material. 
Greatest numbers of species, both plant and animal, were found in the stable high 
salinity region between Sandy Key and East Cape Sable. Areas of very high and very 
low salinity showed marked reduction in numbers of species. If turbidity became heavy 
in either hypersaline or very low salinity waters the numbers of species were reduced 
even further. The plant and animal populations were always greatest when salinity 
values were between 30 and 45 %o. The numbers of species, and numbers within 
species declined with declines in salinity. An offshore movement of animals from bays 
and the estuary, begun each year by falling salinity during the rainy season, was 
hastened by a somewhat abrupt decrease in temperature characteristically beginning in 
November and lasting through January. The widest variety of species in Florida Bay 
was usually found during November-December as migrant animals from further north 
along the Florida coast were joined by species from local inshore areas. The normal 
November decrease in average temperatures was usually preceded by an oxygen 
depletion period in the shallow swamp ponds and lakes. This “bad water period" 
concentrated small fish from the swamps along the bay margins where they were 
heavily preyed upon by birds and larger fishes. Temperature fluctuations in southern 
Florida were seldom severe enough to cause mass mortality. There was, however, an 
annual offshore movement of Coot and Whitewater Bay species in November, December 
and January. Many of the animals participating in this movement were mature 
individuals of eurohaline species such as the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus and the 
striped mullet, Mugil cephalus, that are sea spawners in spite of wide temperature and 
salinity tolerances as adults. Other species, exemplified by the pink shrimp, Penaeus 
duorarum, use the bays as nursery grounds and leave these regions upon attainment of 
a certain size. Generally these begin leaving the estuaries prior to the onset of 
November cold weather but the offshore movement is accelerated by cold temperatures 
in shallow water. The offshore movements were most obvious in dry years when the 
bays fill with a variety of species and least obvious in years of heavy runoff that 
create low salinities in the back bays that exclude most marine species. Mass mortality 
of fishes due to cold was observed during December, 1957 when water temperatures of 
14-16°C were recorded. A similar cold wave in February, 1958 caused no detectable 
kill and indicated a tendency to acclimatize on the part of the sensitive species. These 
studies have made it possible to describe probable past alterations in the ecology of the 
study area and to predict changes in the plant and animal communities under differing 
temperature, rainfall and runoff conditions. As a result, recommendations can be made 
as to the quantities of water and the runoff pattern likely to result in the greatest gain 
to the plant and animal community. These findings can probably be applied to other south 
Florida estuaries and, with due consideration to differences in rainfall patterns and 
temperature variation, can be useful in predicting the effects of man made changes in 
major estuarine systems of the southeastern United States and the Gulf of Mexico. 
Most of the significant changes in estuaries of this area are brought about by alteration 
in salinity and turbidity patterns. These changes are hastened by such developments as 


137 


island building, bulkheading, causeway construction and construction of unnatural tidal 
inlets. Changes in the Everglades estuary were due principally to alterations in the 
watershed following the development of the Everglades for agriculture. In addition, 
local canal building has complicated the water exchange pattern, permitting high- 
salinity water to penetrate areas that were formerly fresh to brackish in nature. 
Salinity is the major environmental factor in the area affecting the plant and animal 
communities. Salinities have changed, beginning about 1920, with a reduction in runoff 
to the Shark River from an estimated average annual flow of 2.3 million acre-ft to a 
measured average of 473,200 acre-ft. Coot Bay and Whitewater Bay salinities are now 
thought to be about twice as high as in the average years prior to 1920. The 
hydroperiod (i.e. the annual period during which runoff measurably dilutes seawater in 
the estuary) probably lasted 12 months of each year of average to above average 
rainfall prior to 1920. Since then this has been reduced to about 7 months. Further 
reduction of runoff from the Everglades, to the area within the Park, will probably 
shorten the hydroperiod to about 5 months. This will permit rapid salinity increase in 
Coot and Whitewater Bays, both by evaporation and by salt intrusion through tidal 
inlets from Florida Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. Florida Bay has a limited watershed that 
acts as a moderating influence on the prevailing high salinities caused by evaporation. 
The salinity pattern of Florida Bay has probably not been altered in historic times. 
However, reduction of its small watershed, particularly the northern part near 
Homestead where annual rainfall is heaviest, could lead to permanent hypersalinity in 
Florida Bay. If salinity increases above 50 - 60 °/oo it may be expected that many 
plants will not survive and many animals will be unable to reproduce successfully. If 
salinity rises above 60 - 70 °/oo many species will die or be forced to leave the region. 
Hypersalinity in Florida Bay would be transmitted to Coot and Whitewater Bays by net 
gain of salt on each flood tide through Buttonwood Canal thereby making conditions 
unfavorable for many desirable animals and plants. At present, Coot and Whitewater 
Bays have salinities ranging between 0 - 5 and 30 - 40 °/oo, averaging about 18-25 
%o. Under these salinity conditions a greater variety of plant and animal life is 
present than in pre-1920 times. With a slight increase in average salinity the region 
would be subject to an invasion by most of the marine species now found off-shore. 
This would favor angling and sightseeing pursuits but would create a situation different 
than in pre-drainage times. We believe that salinities observed are probably most 
favorable for the perpetuation of the area's nursery grounds for shrimp, menhaden, 
crabs and other valuable species. A return to conditions approximating those of the 
pre-drainage period would require a minimum average of 1.5 to 2.0 million acre-ft of 
runoff through the Shark River drainage annually. This should be spread over a full 12 
month period. In many southern estuaries low to moderate salinities should be 
maintained if possible and control should aim at supplying enough freshwater to result 
in annual salinities of about 18 to 30 °/oo. 

1957 - 1962 

Tabb, D. C. (1967) Prediction of estuarine salinities in Everglades National Park, Florida, 

by the use of ground water records. Ph.D. Dissertation University of Miami, Coral Gables, 

FL. 107 pp. 

There is a strong linear relationship between ground water level as expressed by 
elevation of water height in specified wells in the respective watersheds, and salinity 
in the estuaries of Everglades National Park. This relationship can be used to locate the 
freshwater line in the respective coastal rivers, and to predict the salinity of coastal 
estuaries and lagoons. There are two distinct watersheds in Everglades National Park: 
the Taylor Slough drainage discharges into Florida Bay, and the Shark River Valley- 
Everglades drainage feeds the Whitewater Bay - Shark River and lower Ten Thousand 
Islands estuaries. The precision of prediction of salinity increases with proximity to 
the land from which the water supply comes. Errors in prediction are greatest in 


138 


regions having pronounced daily tide-influenced variations in salinity (e.g., near the 
mouth of the Shark River estuary) or in offshore stations of Florida Bay where wind 
causes shifting of the water masses from basin to basin. These water masses at times 
have markedly different salinity characteristics. Areas having strong daily tide effect 
produce characteristic inverted L distributions when salinity is plotted against ground 
water levels. A different, but equally distinctive distribution occurs in non-tidal areas 
at the peak of the dry season. In both cases prediction tables based on regressions of 
ground water elevation against salinity must treat the rising (wet season) and falling 
(dry season) separately. Local rainfall apparently has little effect in changing salinity 
except at the end of dry seasons and drought, especially the latter. At such times the 
ground water level may be several tenths of a foot below mean sea level. If heavy rains 
fall on the estuary at such times measurable dilution may occur, especially in shallow, 
non-tidal areas, before downward seepage of the new surface water has raised the 
ground water levels sufficiently to cause discharge into the coastal estuaries. It was 
shown that an elevation of 0.6 ft above mean sea level is necessary at wells in the 
Shark River Valley before seaward movement of the freshwater line in the estuary 
could be detected. These studies indicate that ground water discharge is by far the most 
significant factor in moderating salinities of coastal waters in Everglades National 
Park. Furthermore, it is concluded that the average (i.e., 45 - 55 in yr 1 ) rainfall of 
southern Florida is not enough to cause the prolonged dilution of the estuaries as 
observed, and is insufficient to prevent an annual deficit between rainfall and evapo- 
transpiration. South Florida generally is classified as having a “tropical savannah 
climate’ where there is a relatively long and severe dry season, and the rainfall during 
the wet season is not sufficient to make up the water lost to evapo-transpiration during 
drought and dry seasons. Such areas experience a constant water shortage during the 
dry season, and hence must depend on water from outside the region, in this case, from 
the Kissimmee River-Everglades drainage, to compensate for water losses through 
evapotranspiration and to prolong the period of estuarine dilution. As a result of these 
factors, prolonged and significant dilution of the extensive estuarine, lagoon and marsh 
habitats, as well as of Florida Bay, is made possible only by prolonged and massive 
displacement southward of freshwater ‘down gradient" in the aquifer. Much of this 
water has its origin in the Conservation areas of the Central and South Florida Flood 
Control District north of the Park, or in the undeveloped area west of Miami and north 
of Homestead known as the “Southwest Dade“ area. This study spanned a period of 
severe drought and of heavier-than-average rainfall. Results of the study of Florida 
Bay salinity during this interval suggest that salinity may be expected to rise above 
50.0 °/oo whenever ground water elevations in the Homestead well fall below 200 ft 
above mean sea level. Furthermore salinity at the stations more than a mile offshore 
will fluctuate between 25.0 and 35.0 %o when ground water levels fluctuate between 
2.0 and 5.5 ft above mean sea level. However, if ground water levels increase to 6.0 ft 
above mean sea level an abrupt decline of 10.0 to 15.0 %o will occur in Florida Bay 
salinity. This suggests the height of ground water required to pour over the “sill“ 
formed by the Miami Oolite ridge between the Florida City-Homestead area and 
Mahogany Hammock in Everglades National Park. Furthermore, this suggests that the 
ridge is more permeable to lateral flow southward, near the present ground surface 
than deeper down under the ridge. The prediction method could be refined by use of 
more refined salinity measuring and recording systems. Such measurements should 
record salinity hourly and should be related to a current direction and velocity meter. 
With this kind of instrumentation at strategic locations in the respective estuaries and 
lagoons it would be possible to eliminate most of the errors observed. 


1 39 


1957 - 1962 . 

Tabb, D. C., D. L. Dubrow and A. C. Jones (1962) Studies on the biology of the pink shrimp, 

Penaeus duorarum Burkenroad, in Everglades National Park, Florida. Fla. St. Bd. Conserv. 

Tech. Ser. No. 37. Florida State Board of Conservation, Tallahassee, FL. 32 pp. 

The biology of pink shrimp of northern Florida Bay was studied in conjunction with 
other studies on the ecology of estuarine plants and animals in a natural fluctuating 
environment. More than 25,000 juvenile pink shrimp collected during the period 
September, 1957, through April 1962 were examined for length and sex composition. 
Pink shrimp enter the Coot Bay area as postlarvae with a minimum carapace length of 
1.7 mm and with 4 dorsal spines on the rostrum. The modal carapace length of entering 
postlarvae was 1.8 mm. with six dorsal and no ventral rostral spines. There appear to 
be peaks of postlarval abundance in the spring and early summer, low numbers in the 
late summer and fall and increasing numbers again beginning about November. 
Postlarvae enter the Coot Bay area on the flooding tides at night traversing the 3 mi 
length of Buttonwood Canal in approximately one hour at the peak velocity of the tide. 
Peak numbers of postlarvae in samples usually occur at the peak velocity of the 
flooding tides. Night plankton samples usually produce more postlarvae than day time 
samples. Catch-per-unit-effort data indicate that juvenile pink shrimp are most 
abundant during the period June through September. A smaller peak abundance is 
usually found sometime during the period February through May. Lowest catch rates 
normally occur in December and January. Among large samples of juvenile pink shrimp 
the sex ratio consisted of about 50% females and 50% males, however, small samples 
may show wide departure from a 1:1 ratio. Predation by fish is probably the major 
cause of shrimp mortality in southern Florida estuarine areas. Shrimp infected with 
sporozoan parasites causing the condition known as 'cotton shrimp' were detected in 
only two instances during 55 months of sampling. Pink shrimp are sensitive to sudden 
cold temperatures of winter and respond by moving to deeper water. With warming of 
the shallows they move back unless they have reached the size for final emigration. 
Mass mortality of pink shrimp was observed following hurricane Donna. Deaths were 
caused by storm turbulence, stranding and post-hurricane oxygen depletion. Carapace 
length-frequency distributions show time and characteristics of periods of juvenile 
immigration into the nursery, and size at time of emigration to the offshore grounds. 
Orderly progression of modal groups along a similar pattern each year, followed by a 
sharp regression of size in June-July can be interpreted as indications of growth 
patterns and completion of offshore movement respectively. An average monthly 
carapace length increase of about 2 mm and a maximum of 3 to 4 mm is suggested by 
length frequency studies. Few shrimp having carapace lengths greater than 25 mm 
were taken in Coot Bay samples. This suggests that most have moved out of Coot Bay 
prior to attainment of that size. Petersen tags were used in an attempt to learn 
whether the shrimp of the mainland nursery areas actually did contribute to the 
Tortugas fishery. One shrimp, tagged in Coot Bay and recovered 123 days later in the 
Tortugas fishery, had increased from 110 count to 36 count per pound (heads off), and 
in carapace length from 21 to 32 mm. Three kinds of shrimp movement were noted; 
daily movement within the bay systems back and forth with the tides, short-term 
offshore movements to escape winter cold, and mass movement offshore in response to 
abnormal weather and water conditions attendant with hurricanes. Catches of small 
shrimp in the Tortugas during September and October, 1960, following hurricane Donna 
were far greater than the average for the same months of the preceding three years. 
The post-hurricane catches in the Tortugas contained much higher percentages of very 
small shrimp than usual at that time of year and suggests that hurricanes can cause 
shrimp to move offshore earlier and at a smaller size than is normal. Pink shrimp are 
tolerant of wide ranges in salinity. Postlarvae and juveniles to 28 mm. carapace length 
were taken throughout the full range of salinity observed in the study area. The general 
scarcity of shrimp larger than 28 mm carapace length in salinity lower than 32 °/oo 


140 


suggest that they are less tolerant to salinity variation as they approach adult size. 
Two other penaeid shrimp species were found in small numbers. Penaeus aztecus was 
taken in samples of P. duorarum. Trachypeneus constrictus was usually found in marine 
salinity areas of Florida Bay, and occasionally, in the tidal portion of the Shark River 
estuary. 

1957 - 1970 

Tabb, D. C., and M. A. Roessler (1989) History of studies on juvenile fishes of coastal 
waters of Everglades National Park. Bull. Mar. Sci.. 44(1):23-34. . 

Knowledge of the species composition and general distribution of fishes in Everglades 
National Park coastal waters has a brief history beginning about 1957. Ten years later 
the list of fishes known to occur there, at least occasionally, had been lengthened to 
167 species. Many of these occur in Park waters only as juvenile stages; they 
apparently move off-shore to mature, spawn, and then re-enter the Park as waves of 
larvae, post-larvae, or early juvenile stages. It was not until the late 1960's and early 
1970's that life histories and environmental ’preferences" came under investigation. 
These early studies, most of which were conducted in relatively low-salinity water, 
concluded that season of the year and presence or absence of bottom vegetation were 
the chief determinants of juvenile fish occurrence and spatial distribution, and other 
factors, such as salinity and temperature, had no statistically detectable influence on 
occurrence or abundance. However, studies of Florida Bay fish distribution and 
abundance during the extended drought of the early and mid-1960's did suggest that 
salinities between 45 and 70 %o were at least partly responsible for declines in both 
abundance and diversity, excluding both adult and juvenile stages. 

1957 - 1974 

Spackman, W., A. D. Cohen, P. H. Given, and D. J. Casagrande (1974) The comparative 
study of the Okeefenokee Swamp and the Everglades-mangrove swamp marsh complex of 
southern Florida: Field trip guidebook. Geol. Soc. Amer. Conv. Field Trip No. 6. 265 pp. + 3 
App. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This citation is a field guide to 
the geology of South Florida Bay and one of the sections discusses the sediments of 
Florida Bay. Subjects discussed include water circulation, molluscan fauna, isotope 
record of circulation gradients and texture and composition of sediments. 

1957 - 1989 

Robblee, M. B., J. T. Tilmant, and J. Emerson (1989) Quantitative observations on salinity. 
Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 
44( 1 ):523. . 

[ABSTRACT ONLY.] Quantitative observations on salinity within Florida Bay date from 
1936. However, multiple spatially distributed observations within a given year were 
not available until 1957. With this paper, observation records from 29 published and 
unpublished studies have been compiled and analyzed to characterize typical salinity 
conditions and determine long-term temporal and spatial changes that may occur within 
this estuary. A total of 6,231 records were available for this analysis. During all but 
unusually high rainfall years, evaporation exceeds upland runoff into Florida Bay and 
hypersaline conditions (>35 %o) prevail throughout most of the main body of the Bay. 
Annual monthly average salinity observations exceeded 35 °/oo within one or more 
areas of the Bay 12 out of the 17 yrs for which data was available since 1956. One or 
more areas of the Bay have exceeded 35 %o during at least one month every year for 
which sufficient spatial and temporal data were available. The highest salinity 
conditions consistently occurred within the central basins lying between the Whipray - 
Buttonwood Keys on the west and Captains, Russell and Black Betsy Keys to the east. 


141 



Lowest salinities consistently occurred within the upper northeast reaches including 
Little Madeira and Joe Bays. An increasing salinity gradient consistently occurred from 
the upper Nest Key basin eastward into Blackwater Sound suggesting the major region 
of upland runoff lies between Little Madeira and Joe Bays. Seasonal dynamics of 
salinity conditions within the Bay were tied to the distinct seasonal rainfall conditions 
of south Florida although considerable annual variability has occurred in the specific 
month of maximum and minimum salinity. Lowest concentrations have typically 
occurred during the late summer or fall months while highest salinities occur during 
late spring. Seasonal and annual variability in concentrations were greatest within the 
northeastern region of the Bay. Within year ranges of monthly mean values as great as 
52 °/oo have been recorded within Little Madeira Bay. High concentrations occurring in 
late spring were often rapidly diluted following the onset of the rainy season within this 
upper Bay region. Consistent temporal data upon which to evaluate long-term changes in 
environmental conditions at any given location were limited. Strong evidence for long¬ 
term changes, given the high annual variability in conditions, was lacking. However, 
observable trends within the database will be present. 


1958 0 

Ginsburg, R. N., and H. A. Lowenstam (1958) The influence of marine bottom communities 
on the depositional environments of sediments. J. GeoL 66:310-18. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] The effects of 
benthic fauna on the sediment environment in Florida Bay was examined. This 
investigation described the ability of organisms, apart from reef builders, to control or 
modify their physical environment. It was found that certain organisms cause 
recognizable differences in sediment and other organisms. 


1958 

Thomas, L. P. (1961) Distribution and salinity tolerance of the amphiurid brittlestar, 
Ophiophragus filograneus (Lyman, 1985). Bull. Mar, Sci. . 11(1): 158-60. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] The distribution 
of the amphiurid, Ophiophragus filograneus in Florida was presented along with a brief 
discussion of the ecology of the species. Based on collections of O. filograneus in Coot 
and Whitewater Bays, a new minimum salinity range (7.7 %o ) for echinoderms was 
reported. 

1958, 1960 

Lynts, G. W. (1962) Distribution of Recent foraminifera in upper Florida Bay and associated 
sounds. Cushman Found. Foram. Res. Contr. . l3(4):l27-44. 

The distribution of the total population and standing crop from upper Florida Bay and 
associated sounds was investigated for distributional factors. A total of 68 samples 
were collected and investigated for foraminiferal content and analyzed for per cent of 
sand, salt and clay. The total population was used to divide the area into four faunal 
provinces: upper Florida Bay, Blackwater Sound, Barnes Sound and Card Sound, and to 
further subdivide these provinces into brackish and more marine biotopes. The relative 
abundance of the miliolidae. Quinqueloculina lamarckiana d'Orbigny and Discorbis 
floridana Cushman showed a direct relationship with salinity while that of Streblus 
beccarii (Linnaeus) and Elphidium galvestonense Kornfeld showed an inverse 
relationship. The whole area was characterized by the Miliolidae and was considered to 
be in the porcelaneous zone. The relationship between Foraminifera and sediment 
distribution was quantitatively analyzed and the results indicate that sediment size may 
be a factor controlling the distribution of certain Foraminifera. The quantitative 
considerations also indicate that the Foraminifera were not on the whole wave or 


142 





current sorted. The study of the standing crop indicated that most of the families 
identified in the total population have living representatives in the area. 

1958 - 1959 

Costello, T. J., and D. M. Allen (1959) Migration, mortality, and growth of pink shrimp. 
Fishery research for the year ending June 30, 1959. Circ. No. 62. Bureau of Commercial 
Fisheries, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Galveston, TX. 13-8. 

This citation describes migration, mortality, and growth of pink shrimp. 

1958 - 1959 . 

Costello, T. J., and D. M. Allen (1961) Notes on the migration and growth of pink shrimp, 
(Penaeus duorarum). Proc. Gulf and Carib. Fish. Inst.. 12:5-9. 

Fifteen verified recoveries of marked shrimp released in Florida Bay suggest the 
relative importance of certain areas as nursery grounds for the heavily exploited 
Tortugas pink shrimp. Previously, the only evidence linking the Florida Bay estuaries to 
the Tortugas grounds was the single tagged shrimp recovery reported in 1960. The 
useful information obtained attests to the utility of marking shrimp with biological 
stains. The method appears particularly suited to experiments which require 
observations over periods of several months. Though the data on migrations and growth 
are preliminary in nature, they will serve as the basis of more extensive 
investigations. The three mark-recovery experiments reported comprise a first step in 
delineating the areas which contribute to the maintenance of the Tortugas shrimp 
population. The marked shrimp were released off Flamingo in 1958, and off Peterson 
and Lower Matecumbe Keys in 1959. 

1958 - 1959 

Lloyd, R. M. (1964) Variations in the oxygen and carbon isotope ratios of Florida Bay 
mollusks and their environmental significance. Jour, Geol. . 72:84-111. 

The factors of climate and geography which produce salinity gradients and affect the 
molluscan fauna distribution in Florida Bay also cause variations in the 80 18 
composition of Florida Bay water. The isotopic composition of Bay water varies in 
response to (1) mixing of Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico waters having a relatively 
constant isotopic composition with Bay water along the western and southeastern 
margins; (2) evaporation of Florida Bay water which causes isotopic enrichment over 
the entire Bay; and (3) the introduction of isotopically enriched freshwater along the 
northern margin of the Bay. The net effect of these processes is to produce a persistent 
gradient of increasing 50 18 from south to north in the Bay while water outside the Bay 
is maintained at a lower and more constant isotopic composition. Isotopic ratios from 
eight species of Florida Bay mollusk shells reflect clearly the sharp contrast between 
Bay and open water 60 18 compositions and, to varying degrees, the gradient of 
increasing SO 18 in the Bay itself. Temperature alone could not cause the variations 
found. Measurement of 5C 13 in Florida Bay mollusk shells reveals a gradient of 
decreasing 8C 13 going from open-shelf water into the Bay. The gradient is attributed to 
the equilibration of C0 2 , derived locally from the oxidation of organic debris in 
sediment with carbonate ions in the water. 

1958 - 1959 

Manning, R. B. (1961) A redescription of the palaemonid shrimp, Leander paulensis 
Ortmann, based on material from Florida Bay. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf Carib. . 11 (4):525-36. 

A series of Leander shrimp collected in Florida Bay represent a species distinct from 
the well-known Leander tenuicornis, and the characters used to separate the species 
are listed in the citation. The specimens were collected during an ecology study of 
northern Florida Bay estuaries. 


143 





1958 - 1963 

Bock, W. D. (1971) A handbook of the benthonic foraminifera of Florida Bay and adjacent 
waters. Contribution 1360, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, Miami, 
FL. Memoir 1, Miami Geological Society. A Symposium of Recent South Florida 
Foraminifera. J. I. Jones and W. D. Bock (eds.). Miami Geological Society, Miami, FL. 1-72. 
Sediment samples from 108 stations in and around Florida Bay were examined for their 
benthonic foraminiferal content. This paper deals primarily with the taxonomy of the 
benthonic foraminiferal species and their distribution in sediments. 235 species 
belonging to 99 genera were identified. Five faunal groups were recognized and these 
correlated in a general way with areal changes in the physical environment. 

1958 - 1963 

Costello, T. J., and D. M. Allen (1966) Migrations and geographic distribution of pink 
shrimp, Penaeus duorarum of the Tortugas and Sanibel Grounds, Florida. Fish. Bull. . 
65:449-59. 

Pink shrimp, Penaeus duorarum, frequent the estuarine waters of south Florida as 
juveniles. As adults, they support valuable fisheries on the offshore Tortugas and 
Sanibel trawling grounds in the Gulf of Mexico. To study the Tortugas and Sanibel 
shrimp stocks as biological units, 15 mark-recovery experiments in which biological 
stains were the marking agents were made. These experiments indicated: (1) timing 
and direction of shrimp migrations; (2) delineated estuarine nursery grounds; and (3) 
outlined geographic ranges of Tortugas and Sanibel shrimp stocks. Prior to migrating 
offshore, the length of time spent by juvenile pink shrimp in the nursery areas varies 
from about 2 to at least 6 months. In migrating from nursery areas, some shrimp 
travel at least 150 n mi before recovery on the offshore grounds. Although migration 
routes are broad, shrimp emanating from particular sections of the nursery grounds 
demonstrate distinct distributional patterns on the offshore grounds. The nursery 
grounds of the Tortugas shrimp stocks include Florida Bay and estuaries extending at 
least as far north as Indian Key on the southwest coast of Florida. The nursery grounds 
of the Sanibel shrimp stocks are confined to the southwest coast of Florida and include 
estuaries extending at least from Indian Key north to Pine Island Sound. The geographic 
ranges of the Tortugas and Sanibel pink shrimp stocks overlap in the nursery areas 
near Indian Key and in the offshore water between the two trawling grounds. 
Apparently, Tortugas shrimp do not migrate to the Sanibel grounds and migration from 
the Sanibel to the Tortugas grounds is minimal The geographic distributions depicted 
may constitute minimums for two reasons: First, the absence of fishing effort in 
certain contiguous areas prevented observation, which could extend the known 
distribution. Second larval and postlarval pink shrimp may migrate to or from areas 
beyond the ranges frequented by Tortugas and Sanibel shrimp as juveniles and adults. 

1958 - 1964 

Allen, D. M., and T. J. Costello (1966) Releases and recoveries of marked pink shrimp, 
Penaeus duorarum, in south Florida waters, 1958-1964. Data Rep. 11. US Fish and Wildlife 
Service, Washington, DC. 77 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Pink shrimp were 
captured, stain-marked, and released for recapture in 17 experiments in the following 
areas: Flamingo, Petersen Keys, Shark River and Bottle Key in Everglades National 
Park; Biscayne Bay, Lower Matecumbe Key, Barnes Sound, Hawk Channel, Pine Island 
Sound, Dry Tortugas Grounds, Sanibel Grounds, and Indian Key. Data reported includes 
location, date of release and recapture of shrimp, number, size, and sex of shrimp, and 
the stains used. 


144 



1958 - 1964 

Robins, C. R., and D. C. Tabb (1965) Biological and taxonomic notes on the blue croaker, 
Bairdiella batabana. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 15:495-511. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Collections from 
Sandy Key Basin, western Florida Bay, resulted in the redescription of the little known 
blue croaker, Bairdiella batabana. The nomenclatural history and bibliographic 
synonymy of B. batabana is discussed. Analysis of meristic and morphological 
characters indicate that this species is very near B. chrysoura. Both species have been 
collected together in south Florida in mixed seagrass beds of Thalassia - Syringodium- 
Halodule. B. batabana feed on small crustaceans; larger specimens move to deeper 
water, its distribution is spotty due to its special habitat preferences. The authors 
suggest it may have a wide-spread distribution along the Atlantic coast of Central 
America. 

1958 - 1978 

Davis, G. E. (1980) Recreational and commercial fisheries in Everglades National Park: an 
ecosystem approach to resource management. Proc., Second Conf. on Scientific Research in 
National Parks. November 1979. San Francisco, CA. NTIS Report NPS/ST-80/02-7. 
228-256. 

Fisheries management in Everglades National Park involves over 20 commonly 
harvested species from six ecosystems, and both commercial and recreational 
fishermen. Analysis of data on catch fishing effort, population age structure of 
exploited species, boating activity, and environmental conditions ranging from 1958 to 
1978 show three types of change in fishery resources. Some species increased in 
abundance and shifted their population age structure from juvenile toward adult fish, 
while other species declined in abundance and their age structure remained unchanged, 
including both juvenile and adults. Both general and specific increases in boating 
activity were associated with sharp declines in catch rates, whereas decreased boating 
activity since 1973 was associated with increased catch rates. Year-to-year variation 
in the availability of major game species declined, which may have been related to 
decline in the frequency of extreme climatic events and/or watershed management 
activities. No effects of harvest on finfish stocks in the Park were detected. 

1958 - 1978 

Davis, G. E. (1980) Changes in the Everglades National Park red drum and spotted seatrout 
fisheries, 1958-1978: Fishing pressure, environmental stress or natural cycles? Proc., 
Coll, on the Biology and Management of Red Drum and Seatrout. October 19-20, 1978. 
81-7. 

Everglades National Park supports mixed recreational and commercial fisheries for red 
drum, Sciaenops ocellata, and spotted seatrout, Cynoscion nebulosus. Within the 
663,750 acres of the coastal waters of the Park, there are six ecologically discrete 
systems ranging from 51,000 to over 164,000 acres each. Commercial fishing is 
prohibited in a total of 94,000 acres in two of these systems. The numbers of 
commercial fishermen involved in these fisheries fluctuated between 125 and 276 from 
1963 to 1978. Recreational fishing activity increased steadily from 58,000 angler- 
days in 1959 to 174,000 in 1965. It fell slightly in the late 1960s, reached another 
peak of about 160,000 angler-days in 1973 and 1974, and fell again to less than 
100,000 angler-days in 1977. Recreational fishermen caught 96% of the red drum and 
55% of the spotted seatrout landed in Everglades National Park from 1972 through 
1977. The mean annual yield of red drum from Park waters was 0.366 pounds per 
acre, and 0.250 pounds per acre for spotted seatrout; producing mean annual harvests 
of 232,3000 pounds of red drum and 158,600 pounds of spotted seatrout from 1972 
through 1977. In the past 20 yrs, three significant changes occurred in these fisheries: 


145 



(1) a shift in age structure towards larger mature fish; (2) consistent trends in catch 
rates, upward for red drum (24 to 127%) and downward for spotted seatrout (6 to 
54%); and (3) marked reductions in the year-to-year variability of catch rates for 
both species. Preliminary analysis of these observations suggests that changes in 
environmental conditions in park estuaries caused the changes in fishery stocks and 
nature of harvest. 

1958 - 1986 

Rutherford, E. S., J. T. Tilmant, E. B. Thue, and T. W. Schmidt (1989) Fishery harvest and 
population dynamics of gray snapper, Lutjanus griseus, in Florida Bay and adjacent waters. 
Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci, . 
44(1): 1 39-54. 

Catches of gray snapper, an important recreational gamefish species in south Florida, 
have been monitored nearly continuously since 1958 in Everglades National Park; total 
harvest and effort data have been collected since 1973, and lengths have been 
measured since 1974. Catch rates of gray snapper have fluctuated greatly since 1958 
with peaks in 1959, 1964 - 1966, and 1977 - 1979. Most of the total annual harvest 
from 1973 to 1985 was taken by sport fishermen (78%) and guided parties (21%) with 
the remaining 1% taken by commercial hook-and-line fishermen and net fishermen. 
Total annual harvest of gray snapper in Florida Bay and adjacent waters dropped from 
129,000 to 99,500 fish between 1973-1976, increased greatly to 156,000 fish in the 
mid-1970's, but declined again during the 1980's to 59,000 fish. Effort was linearly 
correlated with harvest (r 2 = 0.973, n = 13). The great increase in harvest in the mid- 
1970's was due to a great increase in guide harvest. The decline in effort, harvest, and 
harvest rates for gray snapper since 1979 is believed due to increased effort for other 
species such as spotted seatrout, as well as reduced stock abundance and recruitment. 
Gray snapper recruit to the park fishery at age 1 and are found in the catch to at least 
7 yrs. Three and 4-yr-old fish make up 87% of the catch. Gray snapper are believed to 
migrate offshore out of the Park to spawn since very few ripe adult fish have ever 
been found in the Park. Gray snapper along the Keys and Florida's east coast live to at 
least 21 yrs old. Although fishing mortality on gray snapper in the park is high, 
averaging F = 0.76, and the stock is growth-overfished, population size and 
recruitment are not controlled by fishing effort within the Park. Environmental factors 
and possibly fishing effort on gray snapper in the adjacent Florida Keys may control 
stock size. 

1958 - 1986 

Rutherford, E. S., J. T. Tilmant, E. B. Thue, and T. W. Schmidt (1989) Fishery harvest and 
population dynamics of spotted seatrout, Cynoscion nebulosus, in Florida Bay and adjacent 
waters. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. 
Sci. . 4 4 (1): 108-25. 

Catch rates of spotted seatrout, one of the four most popular recreational gamefish in 
Everglades National Park, have been monitored nearly continuously since 1958; total 
harvest and effort data and commercial landings have been monitored since 1973, and 
lengths have been measured since 1974. Sport fishermen catch rates of Florida Bay 
spotted seatrout were higher from 1958 to 1967 than from 1973 to 1985 and reached 
a period of record low in 1973 - 1977. Commercial hook-and-line fishermen and sport 
fishermen together accounted for an average 84% of the total annual spotted seatrout 
catch from 1973 to 1979, with guide fishermen and commercial net fishermen 
accounting for an average 13% and 3% of the catch. During 1973 - 1976, total harvest 
declined from 130,000 to 59,000 fish, then increased to 74,000 fish in 1979 because 
of increased commercial harvest, and declined again in 1980 when bag limits of 10 
fish/person/day greatly restricted the commercial fishery and reduced recreational 


146 





catch. Total annual effort was closely correlated with harvest (r 2 = 0.950). Since 
1980, total annual harvest has increased to early 1970 levels with increases in both 
recreational and guide fishermen harvest. Catch rates and length frequency 
distributions suggest different unit stocks of spotted seatrout in the Florida Bay area 
and the Gulf Coast area of the park. The reduction in spotted seatrout harvest in the 
Florida Bay area appeared due to reduction in fishing effort and to environmental 
factors. Current harvest levels (avg. 100,000 fish yr 1 ) have moderate impact on the 
stock. Average fishing mortality rate for 1973 - 1984 was 0.36 and ranged from 0.20 
to 0.55. Between 13 and 28% of the total recruited stock in the Florida Bay area were 
harvested annually from 1973 to 1984. Age of harvested spotted seatrout ranged from 
age 1 - 8, with ages 3 - 5 providing up to 70% of the catch. Estimated population size 
of spotted seatrout in the Florida Bay area ranged from 686,000 to 786,000 fish from 
1974 to 1978 and then decreased slowly to 631,800 fish by 1984. Recruitment of 
age-1 fish varied from 166,700 to 317,000 fish, peaking in 1976, 1977, and 1984 
and being lowest in 1983. Catch rates were poorly correlated with rainfall and water 
levels in upland marshes. There was no relationship between estimated parent stock and 
recruitment or rainfall/upland water levels and recruitment. 

1958 - 1986 

Tilmant, J. T., E. S. Rutherford, and E. B. Thue (1989) Fishery harvest and population 

dynamics of the common snook (Centropomus undecimalis). Symp. on Florida Bay: A 

Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1):523-4. 

(ABSTRACT ONLY.] The Everglades National Park fishery harvest monitoring program 
has provided a record of the recreational snook fishery catch and effort from 1958 to 
present. Length data are available on harvested fish since 1974. Although snook has 
comprised less than 1% of the total recreational fishing harvest they have been 
specifically sought by as many as 15% of the total fishing boats during a given year. 
This species has comprised 1.1% of the total annual reported guide fishermen catch 
since 1984. A marked decline was noted in the annual number of boats successfully 
catching snook from 1974 through 1982. These declines were due to a decline in the 
percent of boats successful for this species as well as a decline in total fishing boats 
within the park. Since 1982, there has been an annual increase in the percentage and 
total number of boats reporting catches and observed harvesting snook. This increase 
has occurred despite closed seasons being placed on the fishery during January- 
February and June - July (June - August 1985 and 1986). The average catch per 
successful boat reached a peak 5.5 fish in 1964 (0.36 fish man* 1 hr* 1 fished) but 
declined to only 2.5 fish (0.20 fish man* 1 hr* 1 ) by 1966. Average reported catch rates 
continued to decline during the 1970's, reaching only 1.3 fish per successful boat (0.12 
fish man* 1 hr* 1 ) in 1979. The average reported catch of snook per successful boat 
remained extremely low through 1982, but then increased in 1983 and 1984. This 
increase in catch rate was not accompanied by an equal increase in harvest per boat 
indicating that large numbers of small snook were being released during 1983 and 
1984. The size distributions of fish harvested during 1983-1984 also suggest a 
recruitment of large numbers of young fish occurred those years. An annual increase in 
the total number of fishermen catching snook since 1983, as well as the increase in the 
catch rate, led to over a two-fold increase in annual harvest from 1982 to 1986. This 
increase in annual harvest has occurred despite restricted size limits, a decreased bag 
limit, and a seasonal closure on the fishery. Since 1974, the average length of snook 
harvested from Everglades National Park has been approximately 635 mm FL (age 4.5 
yrs). Thirty-one percent of the fish observed were less than the 24-in TL (610 mm) 
minimum size placed on the fishery in 1985. Significant differences in annual mean size 
were noted only during 1975 and again in 1982 when average size increased to 711 mm 
FL (28 in). Both 1975 and 1982 may reflect low recruitment year classes. This is 


147 



supported by size distribution curves for those years. A drop in the average number of 
fish harvested per successful trip was observed in 1985 which reflects the 24-in 
minimum size limit placed on the fishery that year. An increase in average harvest per 
successful boat and average size fish harvested in 1986, even though the total catch 
rates of successful fishermen were down, reveal the entry of previously undersized 
fish into the fishery during 1986. Mortality rate of fish 24 to 30 in. appears higher in 
1986, suggesting higher vulnerability to harvest once these fish reach 24 in. The data 
obtained indicate that the bag limits, minimum size limits, and closed seasons placed on 
this fishery to date have not resulted in a reduced total annual harvest. However, this 
is largely due to unusually good recruitment years in 1983 and 1984. The apparent 
increase in snook populations following the high rainfall years of 1982 and 1983 also 
suggests that larval recruitment and/or juvenile survival may be enhanced by 
increased upland runoff or marsh flooding. 

1958 - 1986 

Tilmant, J. T., E. S. Rutherford, and E. B. Thue (1989) Fishery harvest and population 
dynamics of red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) from Florida Bay and adjacent waters. Symp. 
on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44( 1): 126- 
38. 

A fisheries harvest monitoring program provided catch and effort data on the harvest 
of red drum from Florida Bay since 1958. Length data are available since 1974. Red 
Drum were sought by less than 7% of the fishermen in the late 1950's, but increased to 
nearly 40% of the fishermen during 1986. Red drum also comprised approximately 
15% of the annual total reported harvest of commercial guide fishermen. The annual 
estimated total harvest from Florida Bay declined from 28,500 fish in 1973 to less 
than 17,500 fish in 1978, but then increased dramatically to a peak of 51,000 fish in 
1984. Although fishing effort has continued to increase since 1984, total reported 
catch of red drum has seriously declined. The red drum fishery is largely comprised of 
newly recruited fish. Prior to a 18-in minimum size limit imposed in September 1985, 
51% of the annual harvest were 1 -yr-old fish, 38% were 2-yr-olds, and less than 
12% were 3 yrs or older. Proportional age distribution within any given year has 
varied with annual recruitment to the fishery. A virtual population assessment 
suggests that the Everglades National Park's fishable population of red drum declined 
from around 120,000 fish in 1974 to a low of 90,000 in 1977, but then increased to 
over 180,000 by 1980. During 1985, an estimated 41% of the available population was 
harvested. Recent declines within the red drum population are not likely due to 
fishermen harvest unless such harvest has impaired offshore breeding stocks. Data are 
not available on the rate of escapement and offshore stock abundance. Assuming 
constant annual natural mortality and offshore migration rate, estimated instantaneous 
rates of total annual fishing mortality (F) have ranged from 1.1 to 1.9. Increased 
recruitment to the fishery followed high rainfall years (r = 0.814, N = 10), suggesting 
improved recruitment and/or survival of early stage juveniles during periods of 
increased upland runoff. 


1 959 

Taft, W. H. (1962) Unconsolidated carbonate sediments in Florida Bay, Florida. Ph. D. 

Dissertation. Stanford University, Stanford, CA. 70 pp. 

This report describes the chemical and mineralogical composition of modern 
unconsolidated carbonate sediments accumulating along the western margin of Florida 
Bay. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the possibility of using Ca, Mg 
and Sr content of ancient limestone, the counterpart of modern carbonate sediments, as 
indicators of depositional environment. Systematic variations of Ca/Mg and Sr/Ca 
ratios, and percentages of carbonate minerals do not occur in these sediments either 


148 



laterally or vertically in sediments as old as 3600 yrs. Rhombohedral dolomite and 
hexagonal prisms of low-magnesium calcite are reported from these sediments for the 
first time. Metastable aragonite and high-magnesium calcite together constitute 
approximately 85% of the carbonate sediment; the remaining 15% is made up of low- 
magnesium calcite and dolomite. The metastable minerals exhibit no evidence of 
recrystallization and appear to be the most stable carbonates in this environment. 
Origin of aragonite and high-magnesium calcite is attributed to mollusks and 
foraminifers, whereas that of low-magnesium calcite and dolomite is not known. 


1959 0 

Thomas, L. P. (1959) A systematic study of the shallow water brittle stars of the family 

Amphiuridae of Florida. M. S. Thesis, University of Miami., Coral Gables, FL. 156 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This study is, in some respects, 
an enlargement over the originally planned study of shallow water South Florida 
amphiurids. Although ‘shallow water' in this case refers to that portion of the bottom 
from the intertidal zone to 20 - 30 ft, the author has made no distinction between true 
shallow water species and specimens of deep-water species which have strayed into 
shallow water. Too little is known concerning the distribution of the Florida 
Amphiuridae to make such a discrimination in more than a few species; however, 
suspected deep-water species are noted as such in the text. The study area, from Ft. 
Myers on the West Coast to Lake Worth on the East Coast, has provided the author with 
all the Florida species save two, of these, Amphiura fibulata Koehler, is known only 
from the type taken in five and a half fathoms off Key West. Amphiodia rhabdota H. L. 
Clark, originally known from the type at Tortugas, was reported from Biscayne Bay 
previously. These two species have been included in order that a complete study of the 
fauna might be produced. Besides those species previously known from Florida, two 
species known only from Tobago, Amphipholis pachybactera H. L. Clark are included. 
Two other species, Ophionephthya limicola Lutken and Ophiophragmus pulcher\-\. L. 
Clark, formerly known only from the Tortugas, have been found to be common in 
Biscayne. Ophionephthys limicola in particular is a dominant species of the level bottom 
community. A fifth species, Ophiophragmus septus Lutke, taken off Miami Beach has 
previously been recorded only from Cape Hatteras, Tobago, and St. Thomas. 


1 959 

Wallis, O. L. (1959) Research and interpretation of marine areas of the US. National Park 
Service. Proc. Gulf Caribb. Fish. Inst. . 11:134-8. 

This citation discusses activities of the National Park Service and marine research 
projects underway or anticipated (in 1959) in the Everglades National Park. 

1959, 1962 

Taft, W. H., and J. W. Harbaugh (1964) Modern carbonate sediments of southern Florida, 
Bahamas, and Espirtu Santo Island, Baja, California: A comparison of their mineralogy and 
chemistry. Stanford Univ. Publ., Geol. Sci., 8(2). 133 pp. 

The mineralogy and chemistry of modern, unconsolidated carbonate sediments have 
been studied in southern Florida, parts of the Bahama Islands region, and Espiritu Santo 
Island, Baja California. Sampling in Florida took place in 1959 and 1962. The principal 
purpose of the study has been to better understand the relationships of the different 
carbonate minerals (aragonite, dolomite, high-magnesium calcite and low-magnesium 
calcite) in different sedimentary environments, and the behavior of the inherently 
unstable carbonate minerals, aragonite and high-magnesium calcite, which tend, over 
long periods of time, to be transformed to dolomite and low-magnesium calcite. In 
southern Florida, studies were conducted in Florida Bay, Whitewater Bay, the Ten 
Thousand Islands area, Lake Ingraham, and the shoal area west of Key West. In the 


149 



Bahamas, studies were made along the western shore of Andros Island and on the 
Yellow Bank directly south of New Providence Island. In Baja California, samples were 
collected along the western side of Espiritu Santo Island, and to a lesser extent on 
adjacent parts of the Baja California peninsula. There is little evidence to suggest that 
either aragonite or high-magnesium calcite is being transformed within the 
unconsolidated sediments that we have investigated. Significant changes have not been 
found in the proportions of aragonite, high-magnesium calcite, low-magnesium calcite, 
and dolomite (where present) in respect to depth below the water-sediment interface in 
cores of sediment. If mineral transformations have taken place, one would expect to 
find a decrease in the proportions of the unstable forms (aragonite and high-magnesium 
calcite) and an increase in the stable forms (dolomite and low magnesium calcite) with 
increasing depth and age. It is suggested that aragonite and high-magnesium calcite are 
not being transformed to low-magnesium calcite because magnesium ions are present in 
sufficient concentration in the water surrounding the mineral grains in the sediment. 
The presence of enough Mg ions in interstitial water prevents transformation of 
aragonite and high-magnesium calcite. Experiments by Taft indicate that if Mg ions are 
present in interstitial water in sufficient concentration so that there is at least one Mg 
ion present in the water for each unit cell of aragonite in direct contact with the 
interstitial water, transformation of the aragonite to low-magnesium calcite does not 
take place. The concentrations of both magnesium and calcite ions is generally greater 
in interstitial water in sediments that we have investigated than in the overlying 
seawater; thus transformation of aragonite and high-magnesium calcite would not be 
expected to occur under existing conditions. In places in southern Florida, and adjacent 
to the west side of Andros Island, the carbonate sediment particles themselves, 
excluding interstitial water, generally contain more Mg than can be accounted for in 
terms of the proportions of high-magnesium calcite. In southern Florida, some of the Mg 
is probably associated with dolomite, which is present in small but highly variable 
proportions. Adjacent to the west side of Andros Island, however, dolomite appears to 
be lacking and yet there is still more Mg than can be accounted for by the presence of 
high-magnesium calcite, It seems likely that some of the excess Mg is associated with 
aragonite. Where very fine (less than 0.001 mm) particles of aragonite are abundant, 
Mg is generally present in excess. It is suggested that Mg ions tend to be concentrated 
on the surfaces of aragonite particles, and that the excess Mg associated with fine 
particles reflects that increased ratio of particle surface area to mass. We have found 
dolomite in unconsolidated carbonate sediments that we have studied only in southern 
Florida. In Florida, the dolomite forms from zero to about 15% of the total carbonate 
material present in the sediment, and forms a maximum of about 2% of the total 
material present in the sediment. Where the proportion of dolomite to total carbonate 
material is highest, there is generally a large proportion of non-carbonate material 
present, such as quartz sand. In southern Florida, some of the dolomite is detrital and 
apparently has been set free by disintegration of limestones. However, many of the 
dolomite grains appear to have overgrowths that have formed very recently. Much of 
the carbonate material in unconsolidated sediments that we have studied has probably 
been secreted by organisms. However, it is suggested that particles that have formed 
by direct chemical precipitation under inorganic condition sand have not been reworked 
(aggregated into fecal pellets, etc.), will be generally smaller than about 0.010 mm, 
and that the proportion of sediment with particle dimensions less than 0.010 mm forms 
a rough upper limit of the maximum proportion of the sediment that could have formed 
by inorganic precipitation. Radiocarbon age dates for different fractions of 
unconsolidated carbonate sediments reveal that carbonate carbon and organic carbon, 
within a given sediment sample, tend to yield different ages. This suggests that the 
individual components of carbonate sediments are heterogeneous in age, and that a 
radiocarbon age date for a given sample merely reflects a kind of average age for all of 
the components. Most of the carbonate sediments that we have studied that have 


formed in the past several thousand years and that have remained at or below sea 
level, generally have not undergone much consolidation. However, a notable exception 
is found on Yellow Bank, south of New Providence Island in the Bahamas, where 
specimens of consolidated and semi-consolidated grapestone sediment have yielded 
radiocarbon ages of carbonate carbon ranging from 874 to 1792 yrs. The specimens 
were collected where the water is about 10 ft deep, and presumably, any sediment 
accumulating at this depth has been continuously submerged beneath the sea for at least 
the past 4000 yrs. Consolidation appears to be due to cementation by aragonite. 
Determination of carbon isotope ratios reveals that sediment specimens rich in 
aragonite tend to have relatively high 13 C per mil deviation values, whereas specimens 
rich in low-Mg calcite have relatively low 13 C per mil values. The association of high 
13 C per mil values with high proportions of aragonite may reflect the presence of 
inorganically precipitated aragonite that is enriched in 13 C. 

1959 - 1960 

Croker, R. A. (1960) A contribution to the life history of the gray (mangrove) snapper, 

Lutjanus griseus (Linnaeus). M. S. Thesis. University of Miami., Coral Gables, FL. 93 pp. 
Gray snapper are found primarily in inshore tropical and subtropical marine and 
brackish waters on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Their center of abundance can be 
considered as Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, the West Indies, and the Bahamas and 
Bermuda Islands. The southern limit of L. griseus is in the waters of Brazil while 
stragglers are reported as far north as Cape Cod, MA. The southern tip of the Florida 
peninsula and extreme southwest coast, comprising Dade, Monroe, Collier, and Lee 
counties coincides with the area of largest gray snapper commercial landings. The 
habitat of this area has a constant feature of mangrove growth and estuarine bays and 
lagoons. Juvenile gray snapper have been collected in shallow grassy areas, or in close 
proximity to mangrove growth where salinities have varied widely. Sub-adult gray 
snapper are abundant in inshore, shallow water over muddy, hard, and rocky bottoms, 
especially in mangrove areas such as estuarine bays and lagoons. The precise habitat 
preferences of mature gray snapper are not known. L. griseus occurs further north in 
North America than any other species of the genus Lutjanus. The gray snapper reported 
in northern waters are usually very small fish carried northward by the Gulf stream. 
Abnormally low temperatures in southern waters will adversely affect gray snapper 
depending on the suddenness and amount of temperature drop, the minimum temperature 
attained, and the duration of the cold. Gray snapper in the Everglades National Park 
waters are subjected to a considerable range of temperatures. During the period June 
1957 to June 1959, temperatures ranged at least from 15°C to 36.3°C in Park waters. 
Juvenile and sub-adult L. griseus are eurohaline, being tolerant of seawater higher than 
35 °/oo. brackish water, and excursions into Florida freshwater springs. During the 
period June 1957 to June 1959, inshore waters of the Everglades National Park where 
gray snapper are abundant, ranged in salinity at least from 4.5 to 4.7 %o. Scales of 
gray snapper are readable, and have been critically examined for age and growth 
determinations. The annulus on gray snapper scales appears to be a region of different 
refractive properties than the remainder of the scale, and is a result of discontinuous 
and non uniform circuli. The validity of the annulus on gray snapper scales is shown by 
the agreement of calculated lengths from scale readings with empirical lengths of fish 
of the same growth year, and by the appearance of a mode for the sport fishery catch, 
and for scale readings. The annulus on gray snapper scales is laid down during the 
period December to February in south Florida. The sex ratio for 770 gray snapper was 
404 to 366 (52.5 to 47.5%) females predominating. Females outnumbered males 
slightly in the most abundant age groups present in the most abundant age groups 
present in the sport fishery catch (age groups II and III). Gray snapper sampled from 
the sport fishery in the Everglades National Park ranged from one to five years of age. 
The 2- and 3-yr-old fish made up approximately 62 and 28% respectively of the catch. 


151 


Five gray snapper sampled by spear fishing from Bear Cut, Biscayne Bay (fork lengths 
387 to 480 mm.) ranged in age from four to seven years. Gray snapper four years of 
age and older appear only infrequently in the sport fishery catch in the Everglades 
National Park. Gray snapper average 7.1 in fork length at two years of age, and are 
recruited into the sport fishery at this time. The age at maturity of gray snapper in 
south Florida is not known, although it is greater than three years. There is no 
consistent difference in the mean fork lengths of male and female gray snapper of the 
same age for first four years of life. Mean fork lengths of gray snapper for the first 
four years of life, sexes are combined, are: 3.2, 7.1, 9.5, and 11.6 in. Mean fork 
lengths of gray snapper for the first four years of life, sexes combined, are: 3.2, 7.1, 
9.5, and 11.6 in. Growth of gray snapper from the Everglades National Park is rapid to 
the second year, followed by a moderate decrease to the third year, and almost similar 
growth to four years of age. Continued growth of gray snapper in south Florida beyond 
the age of four years is evident from the examination of scales from fish five to seven 
years of age taken from Biscayne Bay. The gonads of 790 gray snapper were examined 
for macroscopic appearance between July 1959, and April 1960. With the exception of 
five fish from Biscayne Bay, all fish were assigned to one of two initial maturity 
stages. Nearly ripe, ripe, and spent fish were not observed during this study. Gray 
snapper in the Everglades National Park, therefore, appear to pass through two 
immature gonad stages. Gonad studies have shown the sport fishery catch for gray 
snapper in the Everglades National Park to consist of immature fish. The five fish 
examined from Biscayne Bay, fork lengths 387 to 480 mm. and four to seven years of 
age, could conceivably be assigned to a third stage of gonad maturation. The specific 
time, duration, and place of spawning of gray snapper in south Florida is not known. 
Several factors point to a possible early summer spawning period. Collections of 
juvenile gray snapper from central Florida and the Florida Keys report the smallest fish 
collected during the late summer and early fall. Sizes of these fish when compared with 
mean fork lengths of gray snapper at first annulus formation during the period 
December to February, give evidence of a possible early summer spawning period. Gray 
snapper from the Everglades National Park may not be one year old at first annulus 
formation, but six- to eight-months of age. The Everglades National Park waters are 
important nursery grounds for young gray snapper one to three years of age. There is 
no significant difference in the length-weight relationship of male and female gray 
snapper sampled during the study. Gray snapper caught in the sport fishery in the 
Everglades National Park average one-half pound. The stomachs of 200 gray snapper 
were examined during this study. One hundred ninety-five were from the Everglades 
National Park specimens, and five were from Biscayne Bay. The fish ranged from 135 
to 480 mm fork length. Fifty four, or 27%, of the stomachs were empty. All five of the 
Biscayne Bay stomachs were empty. No significant difference in food preference was 
noted from month to month, or for snappers of different sizes. L. griseus preys largely 
on Crustacea; 79% of the stomachs contained at least one type of Crustacea. 
Crustaceans made up 61.6% of food items by number, and 76.7% by volume. When bait 
shrimp were separated from naturally occurring shrimp, shrimp still held prominence 
over any other food item, occurring in 42% of the stomachs containing food. Fish and 
crabs occurred in 34 and 27% of the stomachs respectively. Gray snapper feed near 
rocky and mangrove shore-lines in addition to foraging further out onto grassy and 
sandy flats, and into nearby channels. 

959 - 1960 

Croker, R. A. (1962) Growth and food of the gray snapper, Lutjanus griseus in Everglades 

National Park. Trans. Amer. Fish Soc. . 91 (4):379-83. 

A study of the biology of the gray snapper was based on the examination of 849 fish 
collected primarily from the sport fishery of Everglades National Park. Gray snappers 



from Park waters ranged from 1 to 5 yrs of age, with age groups II and III making up 
62 and 29% of the catch. Mean lengths for each age group, age and length at 
recruitment into the sport fishery length-weight relationship, and sex ratio of gray 
snapper are given. All Everglades Park fish were immature. The stomachs of 200 fish 
were examined for food contents. Crustaceans made up 61.6% of food items by number 
and 76.7% by volume, shrimp occurring most frequently. Fish and crabs occurred in 34 
and 27% of the stomachs containing food. 

1959 - 1960 

Iversen, E. S., and D. C. Tabb (1962) Subpopulations based on growth and tagging studies of 
spotted seatrout, Cynoscion nebulous, in Florida. Copeia. 3:544-48. 

Analyses of subpopulations of spotted seatrout were made using growth and tagging 
data from several locations along the coast of Florida (Cocoa, Flamingo, Fort Myers, 
Cedar Key, and Apalachicola). Growth rates from these areas show differences that 
suggest subpopulation of this species. These findings agree with tagging results wherein 
95% of recaptured seatrout moved less than 30 mi from where they were tagged. 
Results of the two studies suggest a close association of the seatrout with the local 
environment. 

1959 - 1960 

Stewart, K. W. (1961) Contribution to the biology of the spotted seatrout (Cynoscion 
nebulosus) in the Everglades National Park, Florida. M. S. Thesis. University of Miami, 
Coral Gables, FL, 103 pp. 

The Everglades National Park area is near the southernmost limit of distribution of the 
spotted seatrout. The spotted seatrout is more specific in its need for estuarine 
conditions than the other three species of Cynoscion found on the Atlantic and Gulf 
coasts of the United States. There is considerable variation in the relative proportions 
of the scales of the spotted sea-trout. The relationship of scale radius to body length is 
apparently linear although widely scattered. The spotted seatrout in the Everglades 
National Park form an annulus on their scales only once each year and at the same time 
each year. This is primarily in December, although a few fish form the annulus in 
November and January. The oldest observed age for the spotted seatrout of the Park 
was seven years. There is a pronounced sexual dimorphism in the age composition and 
growth rate of the spotted seatrout. The females grow more rapidly, reach peak 
abundance in the catch at a later age, and live longer than the males. The size at first 
maturity of the spotted seatrout ranges from 190 to 300 mm. There is no apparent 
difference in the size at first maturity between males and females. The spawning period 
of the spotted seatrout of the Everglades National Park is distinctly bimodal. A spring 
peak in spawning activity occurs in May, and a fall peak in September, and there are 
ripe fish of both sexes present every month of the year. Attempts made to determine 
the area of spawning and juvenile development within the Park were unsuccessful. The 
spotted seatrout of the Everglades National Park depend primarily upon the pink shrimp 
as a source of food. The feeding activity of the spotted seatrout is primarily governed 
by the availability of food. Minor ecological factors may affect the areas in which 
feeding takes place. 

1959 - 1961 

Stockman, K. W., R. N. Ginsburg and E. A. Shinn (1967) The production of lime mud by algae 
in south Florida. J, Sed. Petrol, , 37(2):633-48. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] A study was 
made on the origin of recent lime muds in south Florida, mostly within the northeast 
interior of Florida Bay. Comparison of the annual production of fine aragonite mud (<15 
ug) by the post-mortem disintegration of fragile algal skeletons, showed the algae, 


153 




Penicillus, to be a major sediment contributor, accounting for all the fine aragonite mud 
in the inner Florida Reef Tract and 1/3 of the same material in northeast Florida Bay. 
The contribution of three other abundant algal species is assessed as well as the 
significance of mechanical breakdown of skeletons, mollusks, and corals. Movement of 
lime muds from their production sources to areas of accumulation such as the banks in 
western Florida Bay is discussed. It is suggested that plant and animal skeletons have 
been major sources of fine lime sediment in the past. 

1959 - 1962 

Jones, A. C., D. E. Dimitriou, J. J. Ewald, and J. Tweedy. (1970) Distribution of early 
development stages of pink shrimp, Penaeus duorarum, in Florida waters. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 
20:634-61. 

Larval stages of pink shrimp were collected by plankton nets from the Tortugas Shelf 
and Florida Bay, off southwest Florida from 1959 to 1962. Protozoae and myses were 
distributed on the shelf mainly between the 8- and 30-fathom depth contours. 
Postlarvae were found both on the shelf and also in the shallower waters of Florida 
Bay. Older postlarval stages were almost entirely restricted to inshore waters. Pink 
shrimp spawned throughout the year in this area, but the intensity of spawning in 
winter was low. Variability of the net catches and vertical migration are discussed, and 
migration routes of the larvae to inshore areas are hypothesized. 

1959 - 1965 

Higman, J. B. (1967) Relationships between catch rates of sport fish and environmental 
conditions in Everglades National Park, Florida. Proc. Gulf and Carib. Fish. Inst. . 
19:129-40. 

Catch rates have been determined for a period of 7 yrs showing the seasonal and long¬ 
term trends of availability of spotted seatrout, mangrove (gray) snapper, and redfish 
(red drum) in Everglades National Park. Park seasonal catch rates are apparently 
associated with the congragation of fish for spawning and by the response of fish to 
drastic changes in environmental conditions. 

1959 - 1985 

Tilmant, J. T., E. S. Rutherford, R. H. Dawson, and E. B. Thue (1990) Impacts of gamefish 
harvest in Everglades National Park. Proc., Conf. Sci. National Parks: Vol. 6: Fisheries and 
Coastal Wetlands Research. G. Larson and M. Soukup (eds.). Washington, DC. 75-103 

The Everglades National Park Fisheries monitoring program has provided a 24-yr 
record of stock response conditions. Over 80 species of fish have been reported within 
the recreational and commercial catches; However, five species comprise over 86% of 
the snapper ( Lutjanus griseus), seatrout ( Cynoscion nebulosus), and red drum 
(Sciaenops ocellatus) has approached maximum sustainable yield (MSY in number) 
during the past 12 yrs. Recent bag and size limits have reduced harvest, but the 
popularity of red drum has increased and its harvest may now exceed MSY. Estimated 
fishing mortality rates (F) have averaged 0.36 for seatrout, 0.78 for gray snapper, 
and 1.45 for redfish. An overall decrease in fish stocks was noted during the mid 
-1970s. That decline is believed to have been the result of low rainfall and reduced 
estuary runoff resulting in increased natural mortality and reduced recruitment rather 
than harvest. High rainfall has been correlated with increased stock abundance during 
recent years. 


1 960 

Ball, M. M., E. A. Shinn, and K. W. Stockman (1967) The geologic effects of Hurricane Donna 
in south Florida. J. GeoL 75(5):583-97. 


1 54 





[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This paper 
discusses the effects of the passage of hurricane Donna (September 9 - 10, 1960) 
across south Florida in an area where detailed data on pre-storm sea-floor conditions 
existed. Much of the work in this paper was directed towards storm effects along the 
Florida reef tract. Elsewhere in Florida Bay, the ebb of the storm tides left large 
amounts of layered lime mud stranded on the supratidal flats. Sites discussed in Florida 
Bay include Whale Harbor Channel, Crane Key, Cross Bank, Sandy Key as well as the 
Florida mainland where mud deposits extended up to five miles inland. The large extent 
of the supratidal flats results from: (1) the ability of storm tides to strand sediment 
over large areas, (2) the inaccessibility of the tidal flat to processes that could rework 
the sediment into adjacent marine environments, and (3) the supply of the tidal-flat 
sediments at the expense of adjacent marine facies that compete with tidal-flat 
sediments for a place in the geologic record. The banks of Florida Bay were not greatly 
affected by storm-wave erosion and are more wave resistent than corals of patch 
reefs. The authors conclude that although such events may be catastrophic in terms of a 
man's lifetime, they are only commonplace events in terms of geologic time. 


1960 

Craighead, F. C., and V. D. Gilbert (1962) The effects of Hurricane Donna on the vegetation 
of southern Florida. Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci. . 25(1):1-28. 

Hurricane Donna passed over the southwest tip of Florida September 10, 1960. The 
storm moved at 14 mph and subjected the area to damaging winds for nearly 36 hr. The 
Flamingo area experienced sustained winds of 140 mph with gusts to 180 mph. The 
maximum storm tide at Flamingo was 12 ft above normal high tide. Hurricane damage to 
vegetation was most severe in the mangrove belt and on the keys in the western 
portion of Florida Bay. Hurricane Donna was the strongest hurricane to strike the area 
since the storm of 1935. This paper contains a detailed description of the damage 
caused by the storm. 


1960 0 

Dobkin, S. (1960) The early life history of the pink shrimp Penaeus duorarum Burkenroad 
from Florida waters. M. S. Thesis. University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL. 120 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE.] 


Fleece, J. B. (1962) The carbonate geochemistry and sedimentology of the Keys of Florida 
Bay, Florida. M. S. Thesis. Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL. 112 pp. (Also 
published as Contribution number 5, Sedimentological Research Laboratory, Florida State 
University, Tallahassee, FL.) 

The texture and mineralogy of the sediments comprising the cores from Florida Bay 
indicate that the overall depositional environment in the area studied has remained 
fairly constant for the past 4000 yrs. There is some evidence which suggests that the 
material at the base of each core was deposited at approximately the same time and 
under very similar conditions. The data concerning the organic matter and 
geochemistry, along with the random nature of the peat layers, indicate that after 
initiation each key-shoal area has had its own unique pattern of development. Further, 
at each locality the key appears to have had the more complex depositional history, and 
may have been initiated separately at a later time than its basal shoal. The data indicate 
that in less than 4000 yrs, several significant geochemical diagenetic alterations have 
occurred in the carbonate sediments. There is a significant loss of high-magnesium 
calcite at the base of all the cores. This loss is so great in several of the cores that 
almost all of the high-magnesium calcite has been removed. Strontium is also affected. 
There is no doubt that the sediments making up the keys and shoals have been enriched 


1 55 



in strontium. It is thought that part of the additional strontium has been derived from 
the Miami Oolite where it was liberated in the process of the inversion of aragonite to 
calcite, and that it has been transported into the keys and shoals by a process of ion 
diffusion. This interpretation is supported by the strong correlation between Sr and 
mean grain size which indicates that most of the Sr is concentrated in the finer sizes. 
While the overall concentration of Sr has been increased in the cores, there appears to 
be a start in the loss of Sr at the base of the cores. This is attributed to the beginning 
of the inversion of aragonite to calcite. The statistical tests for correlations show that 
there are a great number of weak interdependencies between the ten sediment 
properties studied. This indicates the extremely complex nature of the process of 
carbonate sedimentation. Two of the stronger linear are those which exist between Sr 
and mean grain size, and between standard deviation and mean grain size. The 
replacement of Ca +2 by Sr +2 in the finer grain sizes is possibly indicated by the 
correlation between Sr and mean grain size. The strong negative correlation between 
mean grain size and standard deviation indicates that the finer sediments are the best 
sorted. Since the finer grained materials are considered indicative of low energy 
conditions, good sorting, relatively speaking, appears to be the result of the lack of 
available energy. Higher energies enable greater than average accumulations of coarse 
shell material to be concentrated in the silts, and therefore cause poorer sorting of the 
resulting sediments. Thus the energy-sorting relationship in the carbonate sedimentary 
environment appears to be opposite to that in other detrital sedimentary environments 
where intermediate to high energies are needed for good sorting. The cores for this 
study were collected in 1960 from Pigeon Key, Pigeon Shoal, Bottle Key, Bottle Shoal, 
Stake Key, Stake Shoal, Crab Key, Crab Shoal, Captain Key and Captain Shoal. 


1960 0 

Lloyd, R. M. (1960) Shell chemistry of some Recent and Pleistocene mollusks and its 

environmental significance. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. . 71(12):1917. 

(DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE. ABSTRACT ONLY.) Florida Bay is 
used as a model to show how climatic, geographic, and hydrographic factors can 
influence the 18 0/ 16 0 and 13 C/ 12 C ratios and the Sr/Ca and Mg/Ca ratios of shallow- 
shelf marine waters. Some of the variations in water chemistry are reflected in 
variations in the chemistry of mollusk shells collected in the Bay. Geographic isolation 
and high evaporation in the Bay coupled with the influx of freshwater enriched in 18 0 
produce a gradient of increasing H 2 18 0 into the Bay. Dilution of the Bay water by Ca- 
rich freshwater lowers the Sr/Ca in the Bay. The gradient of H 2 1s O in the water is 
clearly reflected in a similar gradient in the carbonate oxygen of mollusk shells. The 
effect of temperature on the carbonate isotopic composition is inadequate to explain the 
variations. Sr/Ca ratios of shells vary but show no simple relationship to environment. 
A gradient of decreasing 13 C in shells going into the Bay is attributed to the 
equilibration of C0 2 derived by oxidation of organic debris in the sediment with the 
carbonate of the water. Analyses of mollusks from sediment cores show that the 
present environmental framework of Florida Bay has existed for the last 3700 yrs. 
Analysis of the fine-grained sediment of the Bay suggests that part of it is derived 
from the Florida mainland. Fossil mollusks from the Pleistocene Caloosahatchee 
formation were analyzed. The 18 0/ 16 0 ratios coupled with geological and faunal data 
indicate an environmental framework strikingly similar to the Florida Bay model. A 
landmass immediately west of the outcrop area is postulated for most of 
Caloosahatchee time. The carbon isotope and strontium data reveal little environmental 
information. 


156 



1960 0 

Manning, R. B. (1960) Some growth changes in the stone crab, Menippe mercenaria (Say). 
Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci. . 23(4):273-7. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Changes in body form with 
growth are well known in decapod crustaceans. The stone crab, Menippe mercenaria 
(Say), is a common inhabitant of inshore waters from North Carolina to Mexico. The 
narrow frontal region is the most characteristic feature of the adult stone crab. A 
marked difference in the relative width of the fronto-orbital region was noted in a 
series of juvenile M. mercenaria collected in the northern part of Florida Bay. 


1960 

Tabb, D. C., and A. C. Jones (1962) Effect of Hurricane Donna on the aquatic fauna of North 
Florida Bay. Trans. An. Fish. Soc. . 91 (4):375-78. 

A hurricane [Donna] caused heavy mortality among aquatic animals in north Florida Bay 
in September 1960. Fish and invertebrates were stranded by retreating salt water 
which had been driven inland or were killed by mud suffocation or turbulence. Oxygen 
depletion due to decomposition of organic material caused subsequent mortality. 
Salinities returned to normal within 6 weeks, but dissolved oxygen concentration 
remained abnormally low for a longer period. Fish and invertebrates were scarce for 
several months in the areas of greatest oxygen depletion. When environmental 
conditions again became suitable, the stricken areas were recolonized from surrounding 
regions. Sport-fish catches in the area declined immediately after the storm, but 
recovered within one to several months, depending on the locality. Catch statistics 
indicate that after the storm juvenile pink shrimp moved from their estuarine nursery 
grounds into deeper water about 60 mi offshore, where they were caught by the 
fishery. There is no evidence that the aquatic fauna of the area suffered any permanent 
damage. 

I960, 1965 

Perkins, R. D., and P. Enos (1968) Hurricane Betsy in the Florida-Bahamas area: geologic 
effects and comparison with Hurricane Donna. J, Geol. . 76:710-17. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Within a five 
year period (1960 - 1965) two violent hurricanes, Donna and Betsy, passed over the 
Florida Keys. Although they were of comparable size and intensity, their geologic 
effects differed. Both damaged the outer reefs extensively, although Donna had already 
removed the weaker elements before Betsy struck. In Florida Bay, supratidal 
sedimentation on the islands and mainland was extensive during Donna, but almost 
absent during Betsy. An exception to this was the deposition of spillover lobes of 
skeletal sand landward of the beach of Cape Sable. 

1960 - 1961 

Goodell, H. G., and D. S. Gorsline (1961) Data Report on the hydrography of Apalachicola 
and Florida Bays. Florida State University Sedimentology Research Laboratory Contribution 
1. Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL. 316 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Investigations on 
the hydrology and marine geology of Appalachicola and Florida Bays were carried out to 
show the effects of hydrology on sedimentation and the interrelationships between 
sedimentation and bottom morphology on water motion and exchange within the bays. 
This report presents the hydrological data collected during the first year's work; no 
analysis of the data is presented herein. Future reports will cover the analysis of 
hydrological and sedimentological data. 





1960 - 1961 

Yokel, B. J. (1966) A contribution to the biology and distribution of the red drum, Scianops 

ocellata. M. S. Thesis, University of Miami., Coral Gables, FL. 160 pp. 

The populations of red drum found in New Jersey are composed mostly of large fish (20 
pounds or more), and are apparently migratory. In New Jersey, reduced commercial 
and angler catches of these fish since about 1935 suggest a considerable decline in 
abundance there in recent years. A lesser decline in abundance has apparently occurred 
in all the Atlantic states south of New Jersey with the possible exception of the east 
coast of Florida. The population in the Gulf of Mexico appears to be stable. Along the 
east coast of the US, the center of high relative abundance occurs on the east coast of 
Florida. In the Gulf of Mexico, centers of high relative abundance occur in Mississippi, 
Florida and Texas. The relative abundance in the Gulf of Mexico greatly exceeds that of 
the east coast of the US. States which have relatively high annual landings of red drum 
also have large estuaries. This is also true on a local basis for Florida and Louisiana. 
States which land relatively small amounts of red drum have comparatively little 
esturine area. Not all large estuaries within the range of the red drum are necessarily 
centers of high relative abundance. In the Gulf of Mexico, spawning apparently occurs in 
inshore areas from along the northern coast of Mexico to Cape Sable in Florida. The 
first indication of spawning in the Gulf is the appearance of schools of adult red drum 
near the entrance to passes and along inshore areas in the early fall. In southwestern 
Texas, spawning schools may contain individuals as small as 406 mm fork length (about 
1.5 pounds) and as large as 40 pounds or more. In the Gulf spawning starts in 
September, reaches a peak in October and then declines until it ends sometime in 
January. Spawning activity apparently takes place near passes and channels where the 
larval and post larval red drum are carried by tidal currents into shallow inside 
waters. The smallest red drum (5 - 7 mm total length) are almost invariably taken in 
water courses or shallow areas in or near the Gulf. Along the Atlantic coast the 
spawning of the red drum probably extends from Virginia southward to at least St. 
Lucie Inlet. As in the Gulf, adults appear in schools near shore and remain in the sea to 
spawn. In the Atlantic, spawning may begin in July and possibly earlier and continue at 
least through December with a peak in late September or October. In the Atlantic the 
spawning season starts earlier and lasts about one month longer than in the Gulf. In the 
Gulf of Mexico in barrier coast estuaries, post larval fish are carried into the estuaries 
by tidal currents. In southwestern Florida, a limited number of samples suggest that the 
post larval red drum move in the surface layers flooding tides after darkness. In 
drowned river valley estuaries such as Chesapeake Bay, small red drum may be 
carried passively into the estuary by sub-surface tidal currents which have a net 
inward movement. Once inside the estuaries the post larval and young fish seek quiet, 
shallow, muddy bottom areas, often with vegetative cover. In the Gulf of Mexico the 
young fish disperse into the estuary as they grow. In Chesapeake Bay and North 
Carolina the young red drum leave the shoals in the fall and early winter and move to 
deeper areas of the estuaries or to sea. In Texas there are seasonal movements of 
juvenile red drum to the Gulf which are not apparent in southwestern Florida. In Texas, 
Louisiana and Mississippi the period of greatest availability of red drum is in the fall of 
the year, whereas in Florida it is in the winter. Juveniles and adult red drum have a 
more pronounced seasonal pattern in Chesapeake Bay and North Carolina than in the Gulf 
of Mexico. They are most available in spring and fall, with the fall being the most 
important. In South Carolina they are most available in the fall. Tagging studies have 
shown that there is very little inter-bay movement of immature red drum Texas and 
Florida. After the first spawning, adult red drum spend increasingly more time in the 
sea and less in the bays and estuaries. Adult red drum found most often in schools near 
the surface close to the shore, although they have been observed as far as 12 mi off 
shore in the Gulf of Mexico. In the regions of North Carolina and Virginia there is a 
possibility of seasonal movement of adult red drum north in the spring and 


158 


corresponding movement south in the fall. The evidence suggests that red drum winter 
over in the area just south of Cape Hatteras, along with related species. Red drum feed 
heavily on crustaceans in all areas of the range. In southwestern Florida red drum in 
the area of Flamingo consumed over five times more shrimp by per cent volume than 
red drum in the Ten Thousand Islands area. In the Ten Thousand Islands the diet of the 
red drum showed a heavier dependence on crabs (mainly xanthids) and a greater 
variety of food than the red drum from Flamingo. Stomach samples from both areas 
showed that as red drum grow larger they eat proportionately more crabs with xanthid 
crabs being the most important. Fish is a moderately important food for the smaller 
sizes but diminishes markedly in importance as food for the largest red drum. Red drum 
seem able to feed by visual or tactile means and can capture prey by a vigorous 
branchial expansion. Red drum often feed in a "head down’ position with the body 
pointed upward in a 30 to 45 angle. In shallow water the tail may extend above the 
surface. In this position the ventral surface of the lower jaw is nudged along the bottom 
apparently searching for shallowly buried animals. Small extensions of the first pelvic 
fin rays apparently serve as tactile filaments and aid the fish in orienting itself with 
the bottom. Red drum also feed by laying in depressions or channels adjacent to sand 
bars and shallow flats where they feed on small animals which are swept off these 
areas by action or currents. Red drum have been found in temperatures which range 
from 2 to 33°C. Rapid drops in temperature can cause mortality. The older red drum 
seem more sensitive to cold than the young. Red drum are a euryhaline species and have 
been collected in salinities ranging from 0 to 50 %o. Older fish appear to be more 
tolerant of hypersaline conditions than young fish. The young penetrate more deeply 
into low salinity areas than do the adults. Eight different species of parasites were 
collected of which the majority were copepods. No individual fish were found to be 
heavily parasitized. 

1960 - 1964 

Pierce, E. L. (1965) The distribution of lancelots (Amphioxi) along the coasts of Florida. 

Bull. Mar. Sci. . 15:480-94. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] The distribution 
of lancelots (Amphioxi) was studied in nearshore areas along both coasts of Florida by 
sand dredge, principally during the summers of 1961 - 1962. A single species, 
Branchiostomus caribaeum, was found, occurring at times, in excess of 15 L' 1 of sand. 
The largest numbers were found from Cape Sable to Cedar Key. The east coast, Indian 
River, and the Florida Keys yielded few or no specimens. The peninsular West coast 
area provides a more favorable environment than do other areas studied. The 
southernmost catches occurred in the Everglades National Park (Mormon Key). Areas of 
higher concentrations were characterized by clean, silicious sand with shell fragments, 
tidal currents, salinities between 22 - 35 °/oo , and abundant phytoplankton. 


1961 0 

Bock, W. D. (1961) The benthonic foraminifera of southwestern Florida Bay. M. S. Thesis. 
University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wl. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE.] 


1961 0 

Stehli, F. G., and J. Hower (1961) Mineralogy and early diagensis of carbonate sediments. 
J. Sed. Petrol. . 31:358-71. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This study 
concentrated on the chemistry and mineralogy of carbonate sediments and on the 
chemical and mineralogical changes which they undergo during alteration into carbonate 
rock. All of the comparable Pleistocene carbonate rocks and most of the Recent 


159 




carbonate sediments studied were obtained from southern Florida, mainly within Florida 
Bay. Most sediments were found to consist of aragonite, high-Mg calcite, and Mg 
calcite. Shallow water carbonate sediments contain about 70% of unstable forms of 
CaC0 3 , with aragonite predominating while in deep water sediments magnesium calcite 
dominates; compositional difference are due to the contributions of skeletal material in 
the two environments. Pleistocene rocks consisted mainly of magnesium calcite. 
Diagensis of carbonate sediments is accompanied by an important loss in the level of 
abundance of Mg, Sr, Ba, and Mn. The significance of volume changes which accompany 
diagensis can not yet be assessed. 


1961 0 

Taft, W. H. (1961) Authigenic dolomite in modern carbonate sediments along the southern 
coast of Florida. Science . 134(3478):561-2. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Crystalline authigenic dolomite in 
shallow-water marine sediments from the margins of the North American continent is 
described for the first time. Dolomite is probably forming at the water-sediment 
interface in Florida Bay because of an interaction between organic material and 
hypersaline seawater. 


1961 0 

Lynts, G. W. (1961) Distribution of Recent foraminifera in upper Florida Bay and associated 
sounds. M. S. Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wl. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE.] 

1961 - 1962 

Gorsline, D. S. (1965) Final data report marine geology and oceanography of Florida Bay, 
Apalachicola Bay and vicinity, Florida. Observation period - January, 1961 to December 
1962. Report No. USC GEOL 65-1. Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL. 14 pp + tables. 
[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This data report 
is a summation of field and laboratory work on various coastal and estuarine 
environments located along the northern Gulf Coast of Florida and the Florida Keys. 
Water quality, circulation and substrate were studied in two different estuarine 
regimes to provide a body of data applicable to studies of similar lithologic bodies in the 
geologic records. Initial surveys took place in 1960. Monitoring stations were occupied 
monthly in Florida and Appalachicola Bays during 1961. Wind speed and direction, cloud 
cover, air temperature, water temperature, dissolved oxygen, silica, salinity and, in 
some cases, alkalinity, were determined at surface, 1.5 m, and 3 m at Florida Bay 
stations, and at surface only in Apalachicola Bay. During 1962, two special surveys 
were done in Florida Bay to examine in detail tidal water circulation and water 
character in a single ’lake' (south of Crane Key). The parameters listed for the 
monthly monitoring effort were recorded. During the course of the survey, sediment 
grab and core samples were collected. The samples were used for textural analysis, 
mineralogical studies, organic nitrogen and carbon, and inorganic carbon were 
determined. Beach data records include wave height, period and meteorological 
conditions. 

1961 - 1962 

Iversen, E. S., and B. J. Yokel (1963) A myxosporidian (sporozoan) parasite in the red 
drum, Sciaenops ocellatus. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf Carib. . 13(3):449-53. 

A description is given of a new species of myoxsporidian parasite located in the 
intestine and pyloric caeca of the red drum, caught in saline waters of south Florida. 
During studies on the life history of red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus myxosporidian cysts 
were found in the intestine and pyloric caeca. This parasite is similar to a 


160 




myxosporidian described from red drum captured North Carolina waters. In this paper, 
data is presented on the parasite from red drum caught in south Florida waters during 
1961 - 1962 and a specific name is established. The parasites were studied in both 
fresh and formalin-preserved preparations. 

1961 - 1962 

Sprunt, A. (1977) Notes on the breeding biology of the white-crowned pigeon in Florida 
Bay. Proc., Internatl. White-crowned Pigeon Conf., Nassau, Bahamas. November 11 - 12, 
1976. 40-2. 

[NO ABSTRACT AVAILABLE.) Many mangrove keys occur throughout Florida Bay and 
these provide ideal nesting habitats for the white-crowned pigeon. In 1961 and 1962, a 
nesting study was carried out in Florida Bay, primarily on Middle Butternut Key in the 
Everglades National Park. During those two years, 368 nesting attempts were 
monitored. The nests were numbered using plastic tags to identify them individually. 
They were checked every two or three days throughout the nesting season. Records 
were kept on the type of tree, the height from the ground to the nest the number of 
eggs, the number of young produced and other parameters. 


1962 0 

Deffeyes, K. S., and E. L. Martin. 1962. Absence of carbon-14 activity in dolomite from 
Florida Bay. Science . 136(3518):782. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.) A sample of dolomite crystals 
concentrated from Recent carbonate sediments in Florida Bay gave a 14 C age greater 
than 35,000 yrs. Since Recent sedimentation in Florida Bay began less than 4,000 yrs 
ago, the dolomite must be derived from older rocks, and Taft's hypothesis that dolomite 
is forming today is incorrect. 


1962 0 

Gleece, J. B. (1962) The carbonate geochemistry and sedimentology of the Keys of Florida 
Bay, Florida. M. S. Thesis. Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE.) 


1962 

Lynts, G. W. (1966) Variation of foraminiferal standing crop over short lateral distances in 
Buttonwood Sound, Florida Bay. Limnol. Oceanoar. . 11(4):562-6. 

Standing crops of foraminifera collected in Buttonwood Sound were analyzed using 
analysis of variance and percentage data. There were no significant faunal variations, 
in terms of F-ratios, at 10 of the 19 stations, indicating foraminiferal microhabitats of 
at least 30 m 2 . Data in terms of per cent of species occurring in all samples (S c ), and 
per cent of population made up of species occurring in all samples (P c ), were used to 
analyze faunal variation. S c values indicated species composition varied considerably 
between samples at each station, while P c values indicated foraminiferal standing crop 
varied appreciably between samples. S c and P c values at each station indicated 
dominant species are quite constant between samples at each station and variation is 
caused by fluctuation in rarer species. 


1962 0 

Taft, W. H. (1962) Dolomite in modern carbonate sediments, southern Florida. Am. Assoc. 
Petrol. Geol. Bull. . 46(2):281. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.) The western 
margin of Florida Bay contains extensive shallow-water banks of unconsolidated, fine 
carbonate mud. The banks are separated by narrow tide channels and rest on hard 


161 






Pleistocene bedrock. The banks attain a maximum thickness of about 4.5 ft. Radiocarbon 
dates show that they have been formed in the past 4,000 yrs. The carbonate mud is 
composed principally of aragonite with lesser proportions of dolomite and both highl¬ 
and low-magnesium calcite. The proportion of dolomite varies, ranging up to about 5% 
by weight of the total carbonate. Other constituents are quartz and opaline sponge 
spicules, but these rarely form more than 1 or 2%. Dolomite crystals are euhedral 
rhombohedrons varying in size from less than 1 urn to approximately 60 ^im. They 
commonly have dark internal rhombohedrons that appear to be intergrowths of dolomite 
and organic materials. Complex clusters of interpenetrating rhombohedrons are 
present, but rare. The occurrence of interpenetrating rhombohedrons and intergrowths 
of organic and carbonate material suggest that dolomite has been formed in situ in 
Florida Bay; however, radiocarbon dating shows that the dolomite is older than 35,000 
yrs and must be detrital. 


1962 0 

Taft, W. H. (1962) Mineralogy of carbonate sediments along the western margin of Florida 
Bay. Proc., First. Natl. Coastal and Shallow Water Res. Conf., 1961. Washington, DC. 
676-7. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This citation reviews the 
mineralogy of carbonate sediments in Florida Bay. 

1962 - 1963 

Lynts, G. W. (1966) Relationship of sediment-size distribution to ecologic factors in 
Buttonwood Sound, Florida Bay. J. Sediment. Petrol. . 36:66-74. 

Seventy-four sediment samples were collected from 19 stations located in Buttonwood 
Sound, in 1962 and 1963. At each occupation of stations, the following environmental 
parameters of sediment-water interface were measured: depth, temperature, salinity, 
pH and Eh. Techniques outlined for measuring pH and Eh must be strictly adhered to in 
order to obtain valid measurements of in situ environment. Factor-vector analysis of 
numerical data indicate that ecologic factors were not linearly related to sediment-size 
and were not linearly interrelated amongst themselves. Sediment-size distribution is 
closely correlated to turtle grass occurrence, which acts as an effective sediment 
stabilizer and trapper. Temperature and salinity are related to climate, while pH and Eh 
are related to organic activity. Carbonate sediments of Buttonwood Sound are probably 
almost wholly organically derived. 

1962 - 1963 

Lynts, G. W. (1971) Distribution and model studies on foraminifera living in Buttonwood 
Sound, Florida Bay. Memoir 1, Miami Geological Society. A Symposium of Recent South 
Florida Foraminifera. J. I. Jones and W. D. Bock (eds.). Miami Geological Society, Miami, FL. 
73-1 1 5. 

A total of 74 samples were collected from a grid system consisting of 19 stations. 
Stations were occupied three times during august 1962, and once during February 
1963. The following environmental parameters of the water-sediment interface were 
measured: depth, temperature, salinity, pH and Eh. Each sample was analyzed for 
forminiferal standing crop and ratio of sand, silt and clay. Q-modal factor-vector 
analysis divided the standing crop into 17 faunal assemblages, consisting of five 
assemblages in a single collection. Distribution of most of these assemblages appeared 
to be controlled by an interaction of ecological parameters. A fauna which was related 
to sediment size and one which was related to bathymetry persisted throughout all 
collections. Distribution of foraminiferal species and environmental parameters 
indicated some such relationships. The faunal information indicated there was no simple 
linear relationship between distribution of foraminifera and environmental parameters. 


162 



Distribution of foraminifera living in Buttonwood Sound was controlled by a complex 
interplay of physicochemical and biological factors, only partially reflected by the 
measured parameters. 

1962 - 1966 

Kolipinski, M. C., H. Klein, and A. L. Higer (1967) Field guidebook on geology and ecology of 
Everglades National Park. Miami Geol. Soc., Miami, FL. 28 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This field trip 
guidebook summarizes the geology and ecology of the Everglades Nationla Park with 
emphasis on the Whitewater Bay - Shark River estuary and upper Florida Bay from 
various publications compiled to complement a carbonate field course taught by the 
senior author. Also, a list of field stops are provided with brief ecological descriptions 
of each site. Provisional water quality measurements from the Shark River are given 
for the period of November through December 1966. 


1963 

Eidman, M. (1967) Contribution to the biology of needlefishes, Strongylura spp., in south 

Florida. M. S. Thesis, University of Miami., Coral Gables, FL. 84 pp. 

In South Florida, the needlefishes occurred in all seasons. Needlefishes were caught in 
greatest numbers in Buttonwood Canal during the period March through May. A smaller 
peak of abundance was found from September through November. These fish favor 
shallow and quiet water although they are sometimes found in swift currents. Sand 
flats are their typical habitat. The needlefishes in Virginia Key feed mostly on fish. In 
Buttonwood Canal insects and crustaceans were of considerable importance in the diet 
In winter, crustaceans comprised almost 50% of the total volume of the diet. Fish 
ranked second, followed by insects. In spring and summer more than 60% of the total 
volume of the diet consisted of insects. Fishes ranked second, and crustaceans were not 
important. In fall, fish comprised almost 70% of total volume; the rest consisted of 
insects and crustaceans. Feeding activities seem to be mostly in daylight, but continues 
through the night with lower intensity. The needlefishes are surface or near-surface 
predators. The smallest fish feed mainly on plankton. Strongylura timucu have paired 
gonads; the right gonads are always longer than the left. In Strongylura marina only the 
right gonad is functional, the left being vestigial. Females can be classified into six 
maturity stages, and males into four maturity stages. The individual needlefishes 
spawned in a restricted period. The populations spawned over an extended period; 
spawning takes place mainly in spring in Buttonwood Canal. The mean size of female 
needlefishes was significantly greater than of the males. The sex ratio fluctuated from 
one month to the next, and averaged 12 females to 5 males in 1963. Size of ova does 
not change between locations in the ovary. The eggs are demersal. Each female 
produces between 800 and 4000 eggs in one season. Males and females mature more or 
less at the same size, about 200 mm in standard length, at 2 yrs of age. Females are 
heavier than males of the same length. 


1963 0 

Fleece, J. B. and H. G. Goodell (1963) Carbonate geochemistry and sedimentology of the 
keys of Florida Bay, Florida. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap., 73:6. (Abs.). 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The shoals 
within Florida Bay are elongate depositional features oriented roughly either 
northwest-southeast or northeast-southwest; in many instances they intersect at 
nearly right angles. All the small mangrove keys within the bay are located along these 
shoals. The sediments within the Bay are almost entirely clastic biogenetically 
deposited carbonate. Five of these keys, together with their adjacent shoal areas, have 
been cored throughout their depth. The lithologies of the cores from the shoal areas are 
only slightly more homogeneous than the corresponding key borings and consist 


163 


predominantly of carbonate material finer than sand. The coarse fractions of the 
sediments consist largely of mollusk shell fragments. Some of the keys have, in 
addition to this type of sediment, layers of peat, and in one instance shell sand, which 
cannot be correlated between keys. Aragonite constitutes 55-80% of the carbonate; 
the remainder is composed of two types of magnesium calcite—high and low magnesium 
varieties averaging from 11 to 16% and <5% magnesium carbonate respectively. The 
organic content and the ratios of aragonite to calcite and high to low magnesium calcite 
are more uniform throughout the shoals than in the keys, reflecting a more uniform 
depositional history of the shoals. At the bottom of the cores organic content tends to 
increase, and the percentages of high magnesium calcite and of aragonite tend to 
decrease. The depositional conditions within the shoals appear to be fairly constant, but 
the patterns of key development vary widely and are unique within themselves. 


1963 0 

Gorsline, D. S. (1963) Environments of carbonate deposition Florida Bay and the Florida 

Straits. Shelf Carbonates of the Paradox Basin; a symp.; Fourth Field Conf. R. O. Bass (ed). 

June 12 - 16, 1963. Four Corners Geological Society, Durango, CO. 130-43. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.) Clastic carbonates are a common 
sedimentary type on the outer parts of broad continental shelves and on insular 
shelves. Pelagic carbonates are of large areal extent in the oceanic basins. However, 
regions of shallow water in situ calcareous deposition are limited to tropical coral 
islands, the southern Florida Peninsula, the Bahama Islands, the Yucatan Shelf and the 
Central Barrier Reef of Australia. The accessibility of the Florida deposits has 
stimulated research on the chemistry, mineralogy, sedimentology and biological 
aspects of these unique sediments. Recent studies of water characteristics and motion 
has provided an additional insight into the provenance of these materials, their 
distribution and the mechanisms that produce them. The question of the direct 
precipitation of carbonate is still controversial but much of the field evidence would 
seem to be better interpreted by biological origins. The Florida Straits is an area of 
strong water flow and relatively great depth. The present carbonate deposits in this 
channel are apparently derived from pelagic sources and from the transport of 
surrounding shelf deposits by strong currents. The similarity between the relatively 
deep deposits of the Straits and those of Florida Bay is striking. Both would be lithified 
into essentially identical formations and yet they represent a considerable contrast in 
depositional environments. 


1 963 

Idyll, C. P., E. S. Iversen, and B. J. Yokel (1965) Abundance of pink shrimp on the 
Everglades National Park nursery grounds. Circ. No. 230. US. Fish and Wildlife Service, 
Washington, DC. 28-29. 

The major objective of this work was to measure the relative abundance of juvenile 
shrimp leaving a nursery area and to describe the environmental factors which control 
their numbers, size composition and other biological characteristics. A large channel 
net blocking the entire width of the Buttonwood Canal was used to catch all animals 
above a certain size range moving on the ebb tide from adjacent estuarine areas. Only 
samples taken within three days of a new or full moon were used in the calculations. 
Although juvenile shrimp move out of the estuary in abundance in all months of the 
year, during 1963, peaks in abundance occurred during January, April and September. 


1963 

Sastrakusumah, S. (1971) A study of the food of juvenile migrating pink shrimp, Penaeus 
duorarum Burkenroad. M. S. Thesis, University of Miami, Miami, FL. 37 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] [Also published 
as Sea Grant Tech. Bull. No. 9, University of Miami Sea Grant Prog., Miami, FL, 1-37. 


164 


(1971).] Qualitative information on the foods of juvenile pink shrimp in the Buttonwood 
Canal was gathered over a year's period. Using the frequency of occurrence method of 
analysis, it was found that the pink shrimp in the Buttonwood Canal is omnivorous with 
a preference for certain foods, including crustaceans and polychaetes. Lowest feeding 
activity was reported in late winter and in summer. It was concluded that there was no 
change in diet with season or with size of shrimp examined. 


1963 

Smith, S. L. (1971) Distribution of recent foraminifera in lower Florida Bay. Memoir 1, 
Miami Geological Society. A Symposium of Recent South Florida Foraminifera. J. I. Jones 
and W. D. Bock (eds.). Miami Geological Society, Miami, FL. 116-20. 

This study was undertaken as part of a reconnaissance study of the present benthonic 
foraminifera of Florida Bay and adjacent waters. Its primary purpose was to describe 
the fauna and its distribution, and secondarily to consider ecological factors as they 
may influence observed distribution patterns. The study area consisted of the western 
portion of lower Florida Bay, a shallow carbonate shelf with water depths ranging from 
less than one foot to as much as 17 ft. Twenty six samples were collected in March 
1963. Most were obtained by coring but a few were taken using a grab sampler where 
the sediment layer was too coarse or thin to obtain a core. At each station, bottom 
temperature, water depth, and bottom community information were recorded and 
hydrographic samples were collected. 


1963 0 

Studer, H. P. (1963) Electron Microscope study of aragonite crystals in marine sediments. 

Am. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. . 47(2):371. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The occurrence 
of aragonite needles in the carbonate mud of the surface sediments of Florida Bay, the 
Florida Keys, and the Great Bahama Bank is of interest to problems of carbonate 
deposition. Older views regarding the origin of the aragonite needles support inorganic 
precipitation. More recent theories favor a biogenic formation and link the mud 
particles to the aragonite sheath of algae, mainly Penicillus, Rhipocephalus, and 
Halimeda. Electron microscope studies of mud suspensions and of aragonite crystals 
from Penicillus reveal a remarkable similarity between the aragonite formed on the 
algal surface, and the aragonite sheath peeled from Penicillus show needle like crystals 
scattered between a network of fiber or film like algal material. The closely 
interwoven system of plant material and aragonite needles supports the suggestion of 
the algal substrate acting as a matrix for the aragonic formation. 


1963 0 

Taft, W. H. (1963) Cation influence on the recrystallization of metastable carbonates, 
aragonites and high-magnesium calcite. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. No. 73:252. (Abs.). 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Unconsolidated 
carbonate sediments of Florida Bay consists of more than 80% aragonite and high - 
magnesium calcite. These carbonate minerals are reported to be metastable and in time 
should recrystallize to a more stable form- presumably calcite or dolomite. However, 
Florida Bay sediments dated by 14 C techniques are as old as 3600 yrs and exhibit no 
evidence of recrystallization. Recrystallization rates of artificially prepared aragonite 
and high-magnesium calcite are controlled by concentration and particular cation in the 
surrounding liquid. Magnesium chloride solution and the magnesium in seawater appear 
to prevent recrystallization of aragonite and high-magnesium calcite at different rates. 
The Miami Oolite is used as a model to explain recrystallization of exposed Pleistocene 
metastable carbonates. Metastable marine carbonates tend to remain unstable for long 
periods until they are exposed to water deficient in magnesium. Therefore oxygen and 


165 



carbon isotopic analyses of these exposed carbonates should be similar to those of 
freshwater carbonates. 

1963 - 1964 

Overstreet, R. M. (1966) Parasites of the inshore lizardfish, Synodus foetens, from south 

Florida. M. S.. Thesis, University of Miami., Coral Gables, FL. 69 pp. 

Parasites of Synodus foetens were studied from collections taken from Buttonwood 
Canal between January 1963 and December 1964. The fish were found every month 
except July 1963. They constituted year classes which remained in the canal for 
approximately one year. The diet of S. foetens included the pink shrimp, Penaeus 
duora rum, and a palaemonid shrimp; and the fishes S. foetens, Anchoa mitchilli, 
Lagodon rhomboides, Eucinostomus argenteus, Sphaeroides sp., Cvprinodon variegatus, 
Poecilia latipina, Gobionellus sp., a cyprinodontid, an atherinid, and others too digested 
to identify. The lizardfish was infected by Oodinlum sp., Sterrhurus musculus, 
Distomum fenestratum, Stomachicola maqna, Goezia minuta, a cestode described as 
Dibothrium tortum, Opecoeloides sp., several larval cestode plerocercoids, a larval 
Contracaecum sp., a larval ascarid, and a larval acanthocephalan. All of these are new 
locality records. Oodinium sp., D. fenestratum, G. minuta, Opecoeloides sp., 
Contracaecum sp., and the acanthocephalan and tetrahynch larvae are new host 
records. Extension of the geographic ranges for infection of S. foetens are recorded for 
Sterrhurus musculus, Stomachicola maqna, the pseudophyllid, and Scolex polymorphus. 
There is an increase in number of parasitic species with length of S. foetens up to about 
11 cm. The incidence of infection was higher in 1963 than in 1964 for all but Oodinium 
sp. and Opecoeloides sp. The difference between the two years was slight for Oodinium. 
Opecoeloides infected Synodus from February through June 1964 only. The only 
parasite to infect every fish was a tetraphyllidean plerocercoid larva in the pyloric 
caeca. Several factors appeared to play a role in the intensity of infection rates. There 
is a difference in infection rates among year classes. The monthly mean number of 
Sterrhurus per fish is negatively correlated with the mean salinity when Synodus 
lengths are held constant. The mean number of body cavity cysts is positively 
correlated with Synodus length when salinity is held constant. The mean number of 
Stomachicola has an inverse relationship with salinity, and the mean number of 
pseudophyllids has a slight inverse relationship with temperature. Possible reasons for 
relationships among these and other interacting factors are discussed. There is a 
positive relationship between mean salinity and the percentage of the pseudophyllid 
located in the posterior end of the intestine. Contingency tests indicate positive 
associations between the presence of Sterrhurus and Stomachicola, and among 
Sterrhurus, Stomachicola, and Goezia. Possible reasons for the associations are given. 

1963 - 1964 

Overstreet, R. M. (1968) Parasites of the inshore lizardfish, Synodus foetens, from south 

Florida, including a description of a new genus of Cestoda. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 18:444-470. 

The parasites of the inshore lizardfish, Synodus foetens, were studied from collections 
taken from an estuarine canal in south Florida between January 1963 and December 
1964. A new genus of Cestoda (Bothriocephalidae) has been erected with the proposed 
name Anantrum. Several larval and adult helminths and a dinoflagellate were studied 
from monthly samples of samples of Synodus. Incidence of infection, intensity of 
infection, location of parasites in the host, and associations among parasites are 
discussed. Extensions of ranges for parasites in S. foetens and parasites heretofore not 
recorded from S. foetens are noted. 


166 



1963 - 1964 

Waldinger, F. J. (1968) Relationships of environmental parameters and catch of three 
species of the mojarra family (Gerridae), Eucinostomus gula, Eucinostomus argenteus, and 
Diapterus plumieri, collected in 1963 and 1964 in Buttonwood Canal, Everglades National 
Park, Florida. M. S. Thesis, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL. 68 pp. 

Highly significant relationships existed between temperature and salinity, between 
temperature and water height as recorded in the wells, between temperature and 
months, between salinity and water height, between salinity and months, and between 
water height and months in both 1963 and 1964. Catches of Eucinostomus gula appeared 
best related with ground water and surface runoff through the close association of 
catches with water height records in well P-38 and rainfall. Catches of Eucinostomus 
argenteus appeared best related to salinity and rainfall and greatest catches of this 
species are dependent upon the interactions and optimal occurrences of environmental 
parameters. Catches of Diapterus plumieri appeared best related with water height in 
well P-38, moon phase, and temperature. The analytical results for 1963 and 1964 
were similar for this species. The results of this study indicated that E. argenteus is 
the mojarra that favors waters of high salinities (marine environment) and D. plumieri 
favors a brackish to freshwater environment. The habitat for E. gula was not as 
apparent but this fish appeared to be able to extend its range throughout the 
environment indicating that it was an estuarine species. Increased efficiency in the 
results of this study may be possible through a logarithmic transformation of the catch 
data plus the elimination of certain environmental parameters which are highly 
interdependent. The design of a program oriented specifically to study the mojarras of 
this area was indicated by the analysis of this data. The program would be expanded to 
include investigation of catches with not only the environmental parameters used in this 
study but also the differences in catches due to lunar, tidal, and diel variations. 
Spawning and migration activities of these fishes should also be examined as well as 
size difference in tolerance to environmental conditions. This may be accomplished by 
extending sampling operations to include Florida Bay, the Whitewater - Coot Bay 
estuary, and the Shark River. 

1963 - 1965 

Yokel, B. J., E. S. Iversen, and C. P. Idyll (1969) Prediction of the success of commercial 
shrimp fishing on the Tortugas grounds based on enumeration of emigrants from the 
Everglades National Park estuary. FAQ Fish. Rep. . 3(57): 1027-89. 

Studies have been underway since 1962 on the juvenile stages of the pink shrimp 
(Penaeus duorarum Burkenroad) in the Everglades National Park estuary. The 
objectives of this study have been to increase knowledge of the biology and migration of 
the shrimp and to determine if a relationship exists between the relative abundance of 
emigrating juveniles and the catches of adults on the Tortugas commercial fishing 
grounds. From January 1963 through June 1965 the relative monthly abundance of 
juveniles was estimated from catches in Buttonwood Canal at Flamingo in Everglades 
National Park using a large 'channel net.' The entire canal was fished by this gear, 
which relied on tidal currents to collect samples. Subsequently experiments showed 
that 'wing nets' could reliably subsample the shrimp moving in the canal and all 
samples were thereafter taken with this gear. Catches of juveniles made near the times 
of the new and full moon are used as indices of monthly abundance. These show a 
positive correlation with the commercial landings of the smallest size shrimp. During 
periods of high abundance, when the average size of the emigrants is small (11 m 
carapace length or smaller) there is a delay of 2 to 2.5 months from the time they 
leave the estuary until they appear in the commercial catches. In periods of high 
abundance, when the shrimp are larger, the delay between the estuary and the 
commercial catch is reduced to one month. Growth rates suggest that the differences in 


167 



migration times are caused by a delay in the arrival of the shrimp at a size large 
enough for the trawls to capture. When an appropriate time lag is used the correlation 
is improved between the relative abundance of emigrating juveniles and the catch per 
unit of effort of small shrimp on the Tortugas grounds. Based on this relationship a 
forecast of increased abundance of small shrimp on the fishing grounds can be made 
before they are available to the fishery. Using commercial landing data an apparent 
movement through the Tortugas can be seen. This appears reliable enough so that a 
forecast of up to 4 months can be made of increased abundance of 41 - 50 count shrimp. 


1964 

Costello, T. J., and D. M. Allen (1965) Pink shrimp life history. Fishery research for the 
year ending June 30 1964. Circ. No. 230. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, US Fish and 
Wildlife Service, Galveston, TX. 22-4. 

This citation describes pink shrimp life history. 


1964 0 

Craighead, F. C. (1964) Land, mangroves and hurricanes. Fairchild Trop. Gard. Bull. . 
1 9(4): 1-28. 

(DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This citation reviews the role of 
mangroves in building new land in South Florida and the effects of the deposits of silt 
and shell by hurricanes in this process. The effects of hurricane Donna in South Florida 
are discussed. 


1964 

Holden, M. W. (1964) Sea turtle nesting survey on Cape Sable beach, Everglades National 
Park, Florida, 1964 season. Open File Rep. N4415. South Florida Research Center, 
Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This paper 
presents the earliest known National Park Service report of sea turtle nesting on Cape 
Sable. It is the traditional nesting ground for the loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta, and 
once was used by the green turtle, Chelonia mydas. Five miles of beach was surveyed, 
from East Cape to SE of Middle Cape. Data is provided on the marking and counting of 
turtle crawls, destroyed nests, and hatching with additional notes on racoon 
observations in the survey area. 


1964 0 

Price, W. A. (1964) Cyclic cuspate sand spits and sediment transport efficiency. J. GeoL 
72(6):876-80. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Contrasts in the 
occurrence of cyclic cuspate spits are found between: (1) a smooth, sandy oceanic 
barrier shoreline and spit-decorated shorelines of the associated narrow barrier 
lagoon; (2) In spit development varying from none on a straight sandy shoreline to 
progressively prominent development with increasing convexity along an adjoining 
sandy headland. Critical factors in this selectivity seem to be wave fetch and shoreline 
curvature. An example of sandy cuspate foreland and small sandy foreland is Cape 
Sable. 


1964 0 

Scholl, D. W. (1964) Recent sedimentary record in mangrove swamps and rise in sea level 
over the southwest coast of Florida. Part 1. Mar. GeoL 1:344-66. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Beneath the shallowly submerged 
coastal mangrove forest (paralic mangrove swamps) of southwestern Florida, marine 
and brackish-water sediments of Recent age overlie freshwater calcitic mud that was 


168 





deposited on bedrock or freshwater peat about 4,000 yr ago. This sedimentary 
succession is thought to be the record of a marine inundation of the western margin of 
the extensive freshwater swamps (Everglades) of southern Florida. To map the extent 
of the submergence a stratigraphic study was made of piston core samples of 
unconsolidated sediments underlying waterways dissecting the coastal forest and intra¬ 
forest bays enclosed within it. These cores were primarily taken in the vicinity of 
Whitewater Bay and in the Ten Thousand Islands area. The latter region forms the 
northern end of approximately 50 nautical mi of swamps and coastal mangrove forest; 
this belt of paralic swamps is typically 1 - 3 mi broad, although it is as much as 10 mi 

wide in some areas. Whitewater Bay is situated at the southern terminus of these 

swamps. The sequence of transgressive sediments consists of a basal unit of 
autochthonous {in situ) fibrous peat, largely derived from mangrove and other rooted 
halopllylic plants, and an overlying allochthonous unit of peaty and calcareous shell 
debris (Whitewater Bay) or shelly quartz-rich sand and silt (Ten Thousand Islands 

area). Judging from radiocarbon dates, the basal peat unit began to form 3,000 - 3,400 

yr ago after cessation of calcitic mud formation. Within a period of a few hundred to a 
few thousand years formation of in situ fibrous peat in areas which are now waterways 
and intra-forest bays gave way to the deposition of shelly brackish-water and marine 
sediments of the upper member of the transgressive sequence. The environmental shift 
from freshwater to brackish-water and marine milieus came about in response to a 
more or less steady rise in sea level and marine inundation of former mainland paludal 
swamps. 


1964 0 

Scholl, D. W. (1964) Recent sedimentary record in mangrove swamps and rise in sea level 

over the southwest coast of Florida. Part 2. Mar. GeoL 2:343-64. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Coastal mangrove swamps 
formed in the Whitewater Bay region of southwestern Florida about 3,000 yrs ago. 
Development of these swamps and the associated mangrove forest resulted from the 
landward penetration of marine water behind a rapidly constructed or pre-existing 
barrier (Cape Sable). Marine flooding took place over freshwater swamps. By about 
2,000 BP 1 - 2 ft of autochthonous {in situ) mangrove peat had accumulated on top of 
about I ft of freshwater calcitic mud. Continued submergence formed Whitewater Bay 
by destroying the mangrove forest that had deposited the peat. Destruction of the 
forest is recorded by the deposition of peaty shell debris on top of the peat. Farther to 
the north, in the Huston Bay complex region of the Ten Thousand Islands area, 
establishment of the coastal mangrove forest began about 3,500 BP. Mangrove swamps 
initially developed along stream and river banks as a result of the landward penetration 
of marine water. With continued submergence the swamps and mangrove forest spread 
onto inter-channel areas. Eventually, continued marine inundation caused destruction of 
near-channel portions of the forest, especially in backswamp areas. Killing of mangrove 
trees and erosion of peat adjacent to drainage channels aided in producing a chain of 
backswamp bays and connecting channels; the Huston Bay complex forms the northern 
end of this chain of waterways. The Ten Thousand Islands are chiefly mangrove-crested 
bars and shoals of shelly quartz sand. This archipelagic portion of the coastal mangrove 
forest was formed to a large extent by tidal currents and evidently was well developed 
by 3,000 BP. As emphasized in Part 1 of this work, radiocarbon dates on marine shells 
and on organic matter of freshwater calcitic mud can be regarded as reliable. 14C dates 
on the carbonate of calcitic mud, the tests of freshwater gastropods, and fibrous 
mangrove peat may be too old by about 400 yrs. Dates on these materials should 
presently be regarded as maximum values. The ages of brackish-water mollusks from 
the Huston Bay complex of the Ten Thousand Islands area are thought to be of little 


169 



interpretative value. These shells may have included considerable amounts of "dead" 
carbon in their shell carbonate and consequently date several thousand years too old. 


1964 0 

Schroeder, R. E. (1964) Ecological studies of the intestinal trematodes of the gray snapper, 

Lutjanus griseus (Linnaeus), in the vicinity of Lower Matecumbe Key, Florida. Ph. D. 

Dissertation, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL. 165 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Gray snappers were collected 
from eight stations comprising four habitats over a nine-month period, and examined 
for intestinal trematodes. The incidence of each trematode was calculated for each 
habitat at each time of year. Snails were collected in the vicinity of the various 
stations, and examined for larval trematode infections. Special attention was given to 
snails known to harbor snapper trematodes. When possible some index of infection 
levels and snail population was derived, and the behavior was investigated. It was found 
that the habitat in which the fish are caught is more important in determining the nature 
of their trematode population than fish size, sex, or season of the year. The reasons 
for this probably involve the distribution of intermediate hosts, most especially the 
snail hosts. Metadena adglobosa (Manter, 1947) is most common in fish from shallow 
Florida Bay Thalassia beds, where its snail host, Cerithium eburneum (Bruguiere) is 
most plentiful. Since fish in this area are small, it is found more often in small fish than 
large fish. M. adglobosa is usually found in the pyloric caeca of L. griseus. Metadens 
globosa (Linton, 1910) was most common at the inshore stations. Its distribution 
suggests that its snail host is different from that of M. adglobosa. M. globosa was 
remarkable for the low incidence of juvenile worms. Metadena obscura n. sp. was 
described from the pyloric caeca and intestine of L. griseus. Although superficially 
similar to M. adglobosa. it differs in a number of characters, the most important of 
which are the enlarged spines of the ventrogenital pit. Paracryptogonimus 
neoamericanus (Siddiqi and Cable, 1960) was most common in fish from the inshore 
stations. It was usually found in the intestine, but occasionally was in the pyloric caeca 
of L. griseus. Few juveniles were found. In this, and in distribution, it resembled 
Metadena globosa. Hamacreadium mutabile (Linton, 1910) also was most common at the 
inshore stations. Large populations of the snail hosts, Aetrea tecta americana 
(Solander) were found near the stations having the highest incidences of H. mutabile. 
Hamacreadium gulella (Linton, 1910) was found only briefly until late October, when it 
began to appear regularly in inshore fish. A possible explanation is that it was brought 
into the area by another definitive host. One Astraea tecta americana that was infected 
with H. gulella was collected. Helicometrina nimia (Linton, 1910) was most common in 
snapper from the offshore stations. It is very rare at other stations. H. nimia is not 
specific for snappers, and is reported from many non-Lutjanid species. The gray 
snapper probably is not an important definitive host. Helicometra execta (Linton, 1910) 
was found in the gray snapper only rarely, and only at the offshore stations. It is 
probably an accidental parasite of L. griseus, and largely dependent on other hosts. It 
may not be able to complete its life-cycle in L. griseus. Its presence in the gray snapper 
is a new host record. Stephanostomum casum (Linton, 1910) was found at all stations 
in about the same percentage of gray snappers, suggesting that its intermediate hosts 
are widely distributed. Nassarius albus (Say) or N. vibex (Say) may be the snail host. 
Nassarius species are hosts to other Stephanostomum species and N. albus and N. vibex 
are widely distributed in habitats of the gray snapper. The data indicate that seasonal 
changes in parasite populations of L. griseus near Lower Matecumbe Key are a function 
of spawning migrations and cold weather movements. Many parasites probably appear 
in unusual habitats through movements of the host. Migrating fish carry parasites into 
new habitats. In a new habitat the original parasites gradually are lost, and are 
replaced by species characteristic of the new environment. Examination of a collection 
of 178 fish of 41 species other than L. griseus indicates that all trematodes of L. 


170 


griseus except H. nimia and H. execta are family specific for the Lutjanids. H. nimia and 
H. execta have been reported from many families, and are unimportant in L. griseus. 


1964 0 

Smith, S. L. (1964) Distribution of Recent foraminifera in lower Florida Bay. M. S. Thesis. 
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wl. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE.] 


1964 0 

Spackman, W., D. W. Scholl, and W. H. Taft (1964) Field guide to environments of coal 
formation in southern Florida. Marine Science Press, University of Miami. Geological 
Society of America pre-convention field guidebook. 67 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This is a field guide to coal 
formation in southern Florida. 


1964 0 

Starck, W. A. (1964) A contribution to the biology of the gray snapper Lutjanus griseus 

(Linnaeus), in the vicinity of Lower Matecumbe Key, Florida. Ph. D. Dissertation. University 

of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, 258 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The family Lutjanidae comprises 
a large group of generally medium-sized predaceous fishes common in warm seas. For 
the most part, snappers are shelf species and some are important commercially as food 
fishes. The family contains an estimated 23 genera, six of which occur in the West 
Indian Region. Latjanus is the largest genus with over 70 species, 14 of which are found 
in the West Indian Region. ( Lutjanus griseus ) was described as early as 1743 by 
Catesby and has a synonymy of at least eight names based on Western Atlantic 
specimens. The most frequently encountered English common names are gray snapper 
and mangrove snapper. Commercial landings of gray snapper in Florida have varied 
between about 252,896 to 456,137 pounds, worth $40,078 to $76,140 from 1956 
through 1962. Monroe County usually leads the state in production. Limited information 
on sport fishery landings indicates that the economic value of gray snapper as a sport 
fish far exceeds its commercial value. L. griseus has been recorded from Woods Hole, 
MA, to Sao Paulo, Brazil. It is common throughout the West Indian faunal region. 
Several Eastern Atlantic records exist but the systematic status of the Eastern 
Atlantic species and its synonyms is uncertain. Juvenile gray snapper of 10 - 70 mm 
standard length are common in shallow water grass beds and often in low salinities. At 
70 - 90 mm SL, they begin to congregate around brush, debris and channel edges and 
are common at such locations from 90 - 210 mm SL. Fish over 170 mm SL, tend to 
move into channels. Individuals which occupy reef and wreck areas further offshore 
usually are 200 mm SL or larger. Gray snapper occupy a wider range of habitat than do 
the other common inshore lutjanids in this region. Records from cold kills of gray 
snapper indicate a lethal low temperature limit between 11 - 14°C. During cold periods, 
they move into deeper water and from dense schools. Gray snapper of all sizes have 
been reported from freshwater with chlorinities as low as 50 ppm. High calcium 
content is probably important to snapper in freshwater. Barracuda, Sphyraena 
barracuda, and the green moray, Gymnothorax funebris, are considered the most 
important potential predators of gray snapper on the reef. One small gray snapper was 
taken from the stomach of a cubera snapper, Lutjanus cyanopterus. A number of 
trematodes, an acanthocephalan worm, three nematodes and one cestode have been 
reported as endoparasites of L. griseus. Tumorous growths are seen on 5 - 10% of 
large snapper at Alligator Reef. A lower incidence was observed in smaller fish. Gray 
snapper are among the dominant medium sized predators in most areas where they 
occur. Several thousand are present in two schools at Alligator Reef in summer. The 
basic color pattern of gray snapper is gray dorsally with white counter-shading. Shade 


171 


may vary from pale gray to dark reddish brown. Dark shades are found among small 
juveniles in grass beds and adults from mangrove swamps or estuaries where the 
water is dark brown. Pale fish are seen in channels around Lower Matecumbe Key and 
on the reefs. A general reddish color has been reported for gray snapper from deeper 
water. The color pattern of gray snapper matches in general tone the variety of 
environments where it is found. Patterns of bars or blotches seen at night match the 
pattern of areas where they commonly feed. The ocular stripe is displayed when 
interest is fired upon another organism or when feeding and is believed to function in 
obliterating the eye. Color pattern of the other inshore snappers is believed to be 
adapted for blending with their various environments. Gray (L griseus and L. 
cyanopterus) is found in the two species which occupy a wide variety of habitats. 
Yellow (L. apodus, L. jocu and Ocyurus chrysurus ) is associated with species found in 
rocky or coral areas where yellowish coral, alcyonarians, sponges and algae are 
prominent. Pink or reddish hues figure prominently in the pattern of the three species 
(L synagris, L. analis and L. mahogoni) which wander in open areas during the day. 
Viewed in their natural habitat these pinks appear gray. Selective absorption of various 
colors, scattering and suspended material alter significantly the underwater 
appearance of a color pattern. Annulus formation on scales occurs in late fall or early 
winter after a sudden drop in water temperature. Scales of 1289 snapper were 
examined and 197 rejected due to replaced centers, and other factors. Estimates of 
growth based on monthly marginal increment of scales and limited data from tagged fish 
indicate reduced growth in water and maximum growth in August and September. Back 
calculations of growth from scale annuli resulted in the following mean SLs at annulus 
formation: Annulus I, 68 mm SL; II, 123; III, 171; IV, 219; V,252; VI, 287; VII, 324; 
VIII, 372; IX, 407. Growth rates of 11 tagged fish (256 - 324 mm) at large 72 to 367 
days averaged 46.5 mm per year. Nine hundred and twelve gray snapper were tagged 
and 57 recoveries made. Forty-eight recoveries came from 274 fish tagged at 
Alligator Light and an additional 30 tagged fish from Alligator Light were estimated to 
have been brought into local fish market within three weeks of tagging. A high tagging 
mortality is suspected for small fish. Growth rate of nine snapper released and 
recovered at Alligator Light averaged 1.7 mm per month after 21 to 367 days at large. 
Nine other fish released at Alligator Light and recovered 3.4 to 18.7 nautical miles 
away averaged 7.4 mm growth per month in 19 to 285 days at large. Reduced growth 
of fish remaining on the reef is attributed to great competition for food in the densely 
populated reef environment. Gray snapper rarely exceed eight pounds. Most records of 
greater size are believed to be based on confusion with cubera snapper. Lutjanus 
griseus is intermediate in size and most body proportions to other inshore lutjanids. 
Only lengths of the paired fins are extreme. Short pelvic fins are associated with a 
somewhat free swimming mode of life. Short pectoral fins are perhaps an adaptation to 
moving through mangrove roots, submerged brush, etc. Spination is well-developed in 
very small individuals and probably serves as a defense mechanism. Small gray 
snapper have proportionately larger heads, eyes, and mouths than do larger fish, which 
are more terete of body. These changes are believed to be associated with the early 
importance of the sense organs of the head and the feeding mechanism resulting in rapid 
development of these systems in small individuals. Increasing tereteness of body is 
paralleled by a freer swimming mode of life and increasing tendency by larger snapper 
to feed on fish. Dentition, especially canine, is best developed in L. cyanopterus, L. 
jocu, L. apodus and L. griseus in that order. All feed extensively on fishes and some 
Crustacea as adults. Lutjanus analis has relatively short heavy dentition and feeds 
largely on Crustacea and mollusks. L. mahogoni and L. synagris have reduced dentition 
similar in shape to the first group of species. These two feed on small invertebrates 
and fishes. Ocyurus chrysurus has the least developed dentition and eats largely 
plankton and small midwater fishes and Crustacea. One thousand three hundred and 
thirty-five gray snapper from 10.5 to 489 mm SL were examined for stomach 


172 


contents. Six hundred and thirty-six, or 48%, contained food. Crustacea, 
predominantly amphipods and palaemonid shrimp, are the main food (93% of mean food 
volume) of juvenile snapper from grass beds. Slightly larger snapper from around 
brush and debris in grass beds had 69.4% Crustacea; chiefly Penaeus duorarum, 
xanthid crabs and pertunid crabs. Fish made up 29.1% of food volume and Opsanus beta 
was the commonest fish. Snapper (largely adults) from an inshore channel contained 
59.5% Crustacea (mainly Portunus sp.) and 36.5% fish ( Opsanus beta again the 
commonest). Crustacea were chiefly shrimp and portunid crabs. Copepods, amphipods, 
palaemonid shrimp, penaeid shrimp and portunid crabs successively dominate the 
Crustacea eaten by gray snapper as they increase in size. Fish assume an increasing 
role in the diet of large snapper. Most food items are swallowed whole and most range 
in size from eight to 45% of SL though elongate forms such as eels may be eaten even if 
longer than the snapper. Juvenile gray snapper from grass beds feed in the day while 
larger snapper are nocturnal feeders. Stomachs examined in later afternoon were 
almost entirely empty. Schools of gray snapper break up at dusk and disperse into 
surrounding areas to feed. Large gray snapper may range a mile or more at night from 
points of diurnal concentration. The feeding habits of gray snapper are not highly 
selective and are more generalized than those of the other species of snapper. The 
over-all sex ratio of gray snapper is about equal though mature females predominate in 
shore channels and males on the reef. The smallest mature female was 195 mm SL and 
the smallest mature male was 185 mm SL among 722 specimens examined. No 
significant difference in size of sexes was noted though the four largest fish (430 to 
489 mm) were females. Ripe females were common in July and August and spent 
females common in early September. Spawning occurs more than once and probably 
around the time of full moon. The occurrence of small juveniles indicates some 
spawning as early as June. A 315 mm female gray snapper was estimated to have 
about one half million eggs. Schooling behavior is strongest in adult fish and is greatest 
in areas of reduced cover. Schools of mixed species including gray snapper are 
common. Small snapper from inshore areas show no directed seasonal movements other 
than being driven from certain exposed locations by low temperatures or storms. Adult 
gray snapper migrate to the offshore reefs to spawn in summer. A much smaller 
population of gray snapper are year-round residents of the reefs. Tagged snapper 
moved as much as 40.5 nautical miles in seven days following the fall break-up of the 
summer schools at Alligator Reef. Gray snapper occasionally submit to removal of 
ectoparasites by other fishes. The latter include the neon goby (Elacantinus oceanops). 
Spanish hogfish (Bodianus rufus) and juvenile porkfish (Anisotremus virginicus). The 
wide geographic and ecologic range of L. griseus is attributed to its generalized nature. 
Restrictive measures for the protection of this species are not needed at present or in 
the immediate future. Adult populations of gray snapper could probably be substantially 
increased by proper placement of manmade cover. 

1964, 1966 - 1967 

Smith, W. G. (1968) Sedimentary environments and environmental change in the 

peat-forming area of south Florida. Ph. D. Dissertation. Pennsylvania State University, 

University Park, PA. 254 pp. 

The kinds of sediments which occurred in 48 cores which are within or marginal to peat 
forming areas in South Florida were described. These were subdivided into various 
types based on ash content, kinds of mineral matter, floral elements, faunal elements, 
color, texture, and other properties. Comparisons of sulfur content elements from 
freshwater areas and areas of marine influence were also made. Observations on 
surface environments and plant communities presently existing in the area were used 
to relate these sediment types environments of accumulation. The sequences of 
sediments were described and relate to historical development of the area in the last 
thousand years. All of this information was used to make inferences about the 


173 


important processes and controls which exist in the large areas of organic sediment 
accumulation which exist in the Everglades and in the adjacent tidal plain. Some of the 
more important conclusions are as follows. Peat forms in six major types of 
environments in the area, and the peat formed can be differentiated megascopically 
with varying degrees of certainty. Only three peat types are of common occurrence. 
There are: a) Rhizophora peat, the most abundant type formed in tidal areas; b) Aquatic 
peat, in basically aquatic conditions; and c) Emergent herbaceous peat, from non-woody 
plants of the freshwater areas. Peats formed in saline grass or rush marshes may 
cover wide areas but are thin. Peats formed in bay hammock are of rare occurrence. 
The peats forming in the tidal area are higher in mineral content than those forming 
deep within the freshwater regions. This must reflect greater availability and energy 
for transport of mineral matter in the tidal area. Freshwater peats at depth in the tidal 
plain were also generally higher in mineral content than peats in the freshwater are 
indicating possible mineralization after burial. A difference was found to exist in sulfur 
content of peats in the tidal area and those occurring in freshwater conditions in the 
Everglades. The freshwater peats ranged from 0.3 to 1.0% sulfur and the saline water 
peats, with but one exception, always had more than 1.0% sulfur. This was not true, 
however, of peats of freshwater origin that presently lie within the tidal plain, so an 
increase in sulfur content possibly occurs at depth in the saline area. All peat types 
showed a gradual increase in sulfur content in the upper 1-2 ft of the section. Peats of 
freshwater origin commonly intervene between the mangrove peats of the tidal area 
and the basal calcitic mud stratum of part of that area. This is contrary to other 
theories. The sequence previously reported of mangrove peat directly over calcitic mud 
is encountered only in 7 cores. The oldest Holocene sediments known are peats that are 
approximately 5500 radiocarbon yrs in age. These reported from beneath Rodriquez 
Bank off of Key Largo. Basal peats from the northern Everglades date approximately 
5000 yrs BP. In the west coast tidal plain and beneath Florida Bay, the ages reported on 
peats are usually less than 4500 yrs with one exception that is reported here of a 
Rhizophora peat that is approximately 5000 yrs BP in age. The old peats beneath 
Rodriquez Bank have not been described sufficiently to know their environment of 
accumulation, but they occur at elevations no lower than those of the west coast that 
are apparently 500 to 1000 yrs younger. The effects of root intrusion very likely 
would make these age differences insignificant. It is suggested that the vegetational 
mosaic pattern of the Everglades is a result of a complex set of factors regulating the 
production and destruction of organic matter. For any fixed rate of supply of nutrients 
and water, it is possible for an unvariegated vegetational cover to exist if an equitable 
distribution of these materials can take place. If inequalities of distribution develop, 
then differentiation of environments will occur. In an area as large as the Everglades, 
with variations in rainfall from place to place and variations of inflow from the margins 
such differentiation seems highly likely. Also, differentiation must have occurred as 
peat began to accumulate due to variations in bedrock level. When differentiation 
results in plant communities of basically different life forms, such as the three major 
communities of the Everglades, the process of differentiation may become self- 
sustaining from variations in water losses. This may induce an essentially one-way 
transfer of nutritional substances into the areas of higher water loss. This may produce 
trends of a serial nature, but changing conditions from time to time apparently reverse 
the trend as shown by cyclic alternations of the different environments in the cores of 
this study. Fresh-appearing and probably living roots were noted in cores beneath living 
Rhizophora to depths of about 90 in. Such root intrusions may cause transport of 
oxygen to some depth and lead to decomposition of earlier formed organic matter. The 
intruded roots also have compactive effects and may make radiocarbon dates generally 
younger than the true age. Beneath other types of vegetation, root effect is much less 
apparent, but may nevertheless be important. A general rise of sea level with respect 
to the land indicated by the sedimentary record beneath the tidal plain, but locally 


174 


regressive tendencies are seen and the shoreline has prograded. The view of Davis of 
generally regressive sequence and general coastal progradation is not supported. The 
accretionary beach ridges of the three capes of Cape Sable are tentatively dated as 
having begun to form as early as 2000 yrs BP at Northwest Cape and 1200 yrs BP at 
East Cape. Shorelines older than the accretion beach ridges also exist in the Cape Sable 
area. These have not been dated but their prominent surface expression would seem to 
allow only slight rise of the sea over the land in the time since they were abandoned. 
The dates on the Beach ridges suggest this was over 2000 yrs. Major trends in 
mineralogical constituents in carbonate mud cores are not evident. Differences that are 
seen are usually coincident with other changes that indicate environmental change. 
There are indications that the peat layers affect carbonate sediments to some extent. 
Shells near the contacts are soft and decomposed. High magnesia calcite tends to 
decrease in amount toward the contacts with the peat. Important amounts of non- 
calcareous clay sized sediment occur in the tidal area but have been little noted in 
earlier reports. These are most abundantly accumulated in the mangrove swamps. A 
stiff clayey sand underlies much of the area north of the Shark River and this may be of 
Pleistocene age. Clays of the Holocene may be partly derived from this and partly from 
materials transported in from the Gulf of Mexico. The clays are highly organic and are 
possibly residuals after loss of carbonate originally carried into the swamps. In the 
freshwater areas clays often occur next to the bedrock in a thin dark organic zone. 

1964 - 1965 

Beardsley, G. L. (1967) Distribution in the water column of migrating juvenile pink shrimp, 

Penaeus duorarum, Burkenroad in Buttonwood Canal, Everglades National Park, Florida. Ph. 

D. Dissertation., University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL. 91 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Distributional 
studies on migrating pink shrimp showed that they occurred in the Buttonwood Canal at 
various times. Shrimp were found on the surface of the canal under all conditions based 
on an analysis of the relation between environmental factors and distributional 
patterns. However, a greater percentage were observed on the surface during full 
moon periods. Evidence from Coot Bay also indicated that juveniles respond positively 
to moonlight during their emigration. No differences in vertical distribution were 
detected in relation to temperature, salinity, current velocity, changes in water depth, 
or sex. Changes in lateral distribution, however, occurred in the canal. When moving 
out with the tide, juveniles commonly cling to drifting vegetation, and their distribution 
is probably affected by prevailing winds when large amounts of vegetation are present 
in the water. At other times current patterns showed no features that might contribute 
to changes in lateral distribution. Mean carapace length and sex ratios were 
determined. 

1964 - 1965 

Beardsley, G. L. (1970) Distribution of migrating juvenile pink shrimp, Penaeus duorarum, 

Burkenroad, in Buttonwood Canal, Everglades National Park, Florida. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.. 

99(2):401 -8. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] The vertical and 
lateral distribution of migrating pink shrimp, Penaeus duorarum, was studied in 
Buttonwood Canal by thrice monthly sampling with conical nets suspended from a 
bridge. Vertical and horizontal movements of juveniles correlated with moonlight and 
tide. During ebb tide, juveniles exhibited a positive response to moonlight, by moving to 
the surface. During flood tides they stayed on the bottom or at the sides of the canal. 


175 



1964 - 1965 

Daley, R. J. (1970) Systematics of southern Florida anchovies (Pisces:Engraulidae). Bull- 
Mar. Sci. . 20(1 ):70-104. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Samples of 
southern Florida anchovies were collected around the southern end of the Florida 
peninsula including the Everglades National Park and were used to analyze variation in 
gill rakers, vertebrae, and fin rays. Most of the specimens identified belonged to the 
following five species: Anchoa lamprotaenia, A. hepsetus, A. nasuta, A. mitchilli, and 
Anchoviella perfasciata. An identification key is given based on meristic and 
proportional characters and pigmentation. Observations on their relative abundance and 
distribution around the tip of Florida are presented. 

1964 - 1967 

Wood, E. J. F., and N. G. Maynard (1974) Ecology of the micro-algae of the Florida 
Everglades. Environments of South Florida: Present and Past. Memoir 2. P. J. Gleason (ed.). 
Miami Geological Society, Coral Gables, FL. 123-45. 

This study was centered on the relation between the composition of the micro-algal 
community, and water level, salinity, seasonal changes and macrophyte population at 
certain chosen places, which, it is hoped, would represent important habitats from 
fresh to salt water. The modes of regeneration of micro-algal populations after fire and 
drought, and the effect of natural changes of the environment on the micro-algal 
populations were also studied. The investigation was performed in the period 1964 - 
1967. The sampling station closest to Florida Bay was in Buttonwood Canal. 

1964 - 1968 

Cohen, A. D., and W. Spackman (1974) The petrology of peats from the Everglades and 
coastal swamps of southern Florida. Enviro n ment. a LSflul h F l o rid a ; Pre sent and Pa st. 
Memoir 2. P. J. Gleason (ed.). Miami Geological Society, Coral Gables, FL. 233-55. 

The Everglades and coastal swamps of southern Florida are regions of deposition of 
significant quantities of peat. Differences in vegetational and depositional environments 
in which these sediments have been deposited have given them distinctive 
paleobotanical and petrographic compositions. These differences are best detected by 
analyses of vertically oriented microtome sections. Nine of the more common peat 
types of southern Florida and their environments of deposition are described in this 
paper. These range from mangrove swamp and salt marsh peats, to brackish 
(transitional) swamp and marsh peats, to freshwater marsh and bay hammock peats. 

1964 - 1968 

Enos, P. (1989) Islands in the Bay - a key habitat of Florida Bay. Symp. on Florida Bay: A 
Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1 ):365-86. 

Florida Bay contains 237 muddy islands with areas >100 m 2 that comprise 1.73% of 
the total area. The geographic distribution of islands is uneven; they are least numerous 
in the western Bay (0.76% of total area); most common in the central Bay (2.89%) and 
intermediate in the northeastern Bay (1.88%). Principal island habitats are: (1) red and 
black mangrove swamps, (2) algal and halophyte marshes, (3) grass 'prairies’ and (4) 
hardwood-buttonwood hammocks. A hierarchical classification of islands consists of 
islands that contain only habitat (1) mangrove swamps, (1) and (2), (1) through (3), 
and (1) through (4); these represent a developmental sequence. Islands are dynamic: 
habitats evolve, sometimes catastrophically, and islands migrate through erosion on 
more exposed margins and lateral accretion on protected margins. Cores from islands 
showed that some nucleated with transgression of the shoreline and persisted 
throughout the Holocene flooding of the bay, but others nucleated on mudbanks later in 
the history of the bay. The stratigraphic history of islands had no obvious relationship 


176 





to the habitats now present on the islands. Habitats were characterized from field work 
and aerial photographs taken prior to Hurricane Betsy (1965). 

1964 - 1968 

Hudson, J. H., D. M. Allen, and T. J. Costello (1970) The flora and fauna of a basin in 
central Florida Bay. Contribution 263. Spec. Scientific Rep. 604. US Fish and Wildlife 
Service, Washington, DC. 14 pp. 

One hundred ninety-six species of plants and animals were reported from Porpoise 
Lake, a nursery area for pink shrimp Penaeus duorarum duorarum in central Florida 
Bay. Many of the organisms were benthic and associated with shallow beds of turtle 
grass, Thalassia testudinum. Although abrupt habitat variations may affect species 
distribution, the general distribution of organisms in the basin and Bay defined 
environments influenced by different water masses. Sampling took place monthly from 
April 1964 to January 1968. 

1964 - 1973 

Davis, G. E., and M. C. Whiting (1977) Loggerhead sea turtle nesting in Everglades National 
Park, Florida, USA. Herptoloaica . 33:18-28. 

A decade, 1964 - 1973, of investigation of sea turtle nesting in Everglades National 
Park is reviewed. Virtually all nesting was by loggerhead turtles, Caretta caretta. 
Nesting activity increased from 455 nests to 915 nests per nesting season from 1964 
- 1965 to 1973 - 1973. There was roughly twice as much nesting activity in even 
numbered years as in the following off number years. Individual turtles seemed to nest 
on a 2-yr cycle, with four or more nests per year. Nesting interval within a season, 
May through August, was 12 days. Mean clutch size was 100 eggs/nest. This declined 
steadily through the season from 100 to 79 eggs. Annual predation by raccoons, 
Procyon lotor marinus, on Caretta eggs ranged from 49 to 87%. The loggerhead sea 
turtle nesting beaches are in Cape Sable. 


1 965 

Costello, T. J., and D. M. Allen (1966) Florida Bay ecology project. Circ. No. 246. Bureau 
of Commercial Fisheries, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Galveston, TX. 15-8. 

This citation described activities completed in the study of pink shrimp in Florida Bay 
during 1965. 


1 965 

Holden, M. W. (1965) Further notes on sea turtle nesting on Cape Sable. Open File Rep. 

N1415. South Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 8 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991);] This paper 
describes a follow-up study on sea turtle nesting on Cape Sable beaches during the 
summer of 1965. On-ground and aircraft observations indicated the continued success 
of nesting (246 observed crawls), however as many as 80% of the nests were thought 
to have been destroyed by racoons. Artificial nest boxes, used to prevent the racoons 
from getting at the eggs, resulted in a hatching success of 44%. Recommendations are 
given to increase the hatching rate, if the artificial nest continues the following year 
and on racoon removal methodology. 


1965 0 

Idyll, C. P. (1965) Shrimp need freshwater too. Nat. Parks Mag. . Oct.:14-5. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This citation discusses the 
diminishing supply of water in the Everglades and its effect on shrimp fisheries. 


177 




1965 0 

Lynts, G. W. (1965) Observations on some Florida Bay foraminifera. Cushman _FQUncL 

Foram. Res. Contr.. 16:67-9. 

(DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Valvulina oviedoiana d'Orbigny, 
Triloculina bassensis Parr and Bolivinita rhomboidalis (Millet) from Florida Bay and 
environs are described and discussed. Specimens of Valvulina oviedoiana lacking the 
valvular tooth are quantitatively compared with those with valvular tooth and are 
presently considered to represent the same species. Triloculina bassensis from Florida 
Bay is compared and considered conspecific with specimens of Millolina angularis Flint. 
Triloculina bassensis from Australia and Triloculina cf. T. bassensis from Bikini. 
Triloculina bassensis Parr is considered to be the valid name of the species at the 
present time. A specimen previously listed as Bolivina sp. from Florida Bay is identified 
as Bolivinita rhomboidalis (Millet). 

1965 - 1966 

Halpern, J. A. (1970) Growth rate of the tropical sea star Luidia senegalensis (Lamarck). 

Bull. Mar. ScL 20:626-33. 

A recently metamorphosed population of the nine-armed tropical sea star, Luidia 
senegalensis, was found on the southwest coast of Florida in November 1965, and 
growth was followed for 16 weeks. An analysis of stomach contents was made. It 
showed the bivalved mollusk, Abra aequalis to be the dominant food source. The growth 
rate of L. senegalensis was considerably more rapid than the growth rates of those 
temperate species of sea stars that have been studied. 

1965 - 1967 

Costello, T. J., and D. M. Allen (1968) Florida Bay ecology studies. Circ. No. 295. Bureau of 

Commercial Fisheries, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Galveston, TX. 10-1. 

The shallow waters of Florida Bay and the Florida Keys are important nursery grounds 
for pink shrimp of the Tortugas grounds. Since 1965, biological observations on 
postlarval and early juvenile pink shrimp were made in these extensive estuaries. 
Postlarvae were sampled quantitatively once each month on incoming night tides at 
Whale Harbor Bridge near Islamorada (upper Florida Keys). As part of a cooperative 
plan similar observations were taken at three additional sites in the lower Keys by 
biologists of the Florita State Board of Conservation. This work established that large 
numbers of postlarval shrimp enter Florida Bay from the Atlantic Ocean and that 
recruitment continues throughout the year. Most postlarvae pass through the Keys into 
Florida Bay in late spring, summers and early fall. We expanded the sampling of 
juvenile shrimp in 1967. Quantitative samples have been taken monthly with a modified 
marsh net at 22 widely distributed shallow-water sites. Earlier samples were taken 
with the unit-area suction sampler designed by personnel at this station. Examination of 
samples from Florida Bay revealed that early juveniles increase in abundance during 
the summer and become most numerous during the fall. This concurs with the 
observation that postlarvae enter Florida Bay before and during these seasons. The data 
we have collected on incoming postlarvae and early juveniles indicate that the 
distribution of early juvenile pink shrink in Florida Bay depends primarily on the degree 
of postlarval penetration. Maximum concentrations of early juveniles occur in the 
western and southern portions of the Bay, generally in areas that receive large 
volumes of waterflow from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean - a demonstrated 
source of postlarvae. Conversely, northeastern Florida Bay, which receives little 
waterflow from these sources, contains few early juveniles. At three stations in the 
northeastern Bay, we collected no pink shrimp during the first 6 months of sampling. 
The western and southern portions of the Bay are characterized by more stable 
salinities and temperatures, lower turbidities, and more extensive seagrass beds than 


178 





generally occur in northeastern Florida Bay. In certain parts of northeastern Florida 
Bay, however, environmental conditions suitable for young pink shrimp apparently do 
exist for extended periods of time. Even at these times, however, few juveniles occur 
in northeastern Florida Bay. Another important aim of the field work is to accumulate 
information needed as background for 'estuary-seeding' experiments. If production of 
juvenile shrimp in Florida Bay depends on the availability of postlarvae, it may be 
feasible to introduce large numbers of young shrimp reared artificially to certain 
shrimp-deficient areas of the bay and thereby increase production. Sampling has 
established the usual abundance of pink shrimp and associated organisns at each station. 
With these background data, we may be able to determine the effect of introducing large 
numbers of young shrimp at a chosen location. 

1965 - 1967 

Roessler, M. A., A. C. Jones, and S. L. Monro (1969) Larval and postlarval pink shrimp, 

Penaeus duorarum, in south Florida. FAQ Fish. Rep. . 57(3):859-66. 

(NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. NARRATIVE SAME AS ROESSLER AND REHRER (1971).] 

1965 - 1967 

Roessler, M. A. and R. G. Rehrer (1971) Relation of catches of postlarval pink shrimp in 

Everglades National Park, Florida, to the commercial catches on the Tortugas grounds. Bull- 

Mar ScL 21:790-805. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Postlarval pink 
shrimp were sampled at Buttonwood Canal and Little Shark River, from July 1965 to 
December 1967. Environmental effects on postlarval catches were observed and the 
catches of immigrating Penaeus were compared with commercial catches of Penaeus on 
the Grounds. Postlarvae were more abundant at night, during flood tides, in bottom 
samples, during new and first quarter lunar periods and during the summer. An index of 
abundance was selected at both stations with which it was possible to predict 61% of 
the monthly variation in commercial Tortugas catches. 

1965 - 1968 

Costello, T. J., and D. M. Allen (1969) Ecology of pink shrimp in Florida Bay. Circ. No. 325. 

Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Galveston, TX. 9-10. 

Ecological studies in Florida Bay and the Florida Keys have produced a variety of 
information on young pink shrimp, Penneus d. duorarum, not previously available. These 
shallow waters are the prime nursery grounds for pink shrimp of the Tortugas fishery. 
Postlarvae of the pink shrimp enter the Florida Bay estuary from the Atlantic Ocean 
through channels in the Florida keys and love on the bottom of suitable, shallow-water, 
grassy areas. These shrimp settle in greatest numbers near shorelines, and apparently 
prefer bottoms with growths of shoal grass, Diplanthera wrightii. Quantitative samples 
of planktopnic postlarval shrimp enterting Florida Bay via Whale Harbor Channel were 
taken monthly for 30 months. Seasonal peaks of shrimp abundance were in the spring, 
summer, or fall. The numbers of incoming planktonic postlarvae are reflected by the 
numbers of benthic postlarvae caught at selected sampling stations in Florida Bay and 
the Keys. Planktonic and benthic postlarvae were most abundant from June to December 
in 1967. The numbers of shrimp in samples from 18 selected stations in October 1967 
give a general picture of shrimp distribution in Florida Bay and the Florida Keys. 
Northeastern Florida Bay has little water exchange with the Atlantic Ocean and contains 
a relatively small number of shrimp. The central Bay, with water circulation somewhat 
restricted by shallow water mudbanks, has moderate numbers of postlarval and 
juvenile shrimp, whereas the western Bay, with a large volume of incoming Atlantic 
water, has an abundance of young pink shrimp. The Lower Keys have moderate numbers 


179 





of shrimp; the limiting factor here may be the shallow substrates that restrict the 
growth of seagrasses. 

1965 - 1968 

Costello, T. J., D. M. Allen, and J. H. Hudson (1986) Distribution, seasonal abundance, and 

ecology of juvenile northern pink shrimp, Penaeus duorarum, in the Florida Bay area. NOAA 

Tech. Memo. NMFS-SEFC-161. NOAA/NMFS, Miami, FL. 84 pp. 

The Florida Bay area of south Florida contains important nursery grounds used by 
juveniles of the northern pink shrimp, Penaeus duorarum, before their migration to the 
offshore Grounds. Early juvenile shrimp were sampled in the Bay area from 1965 to 
1968; maximum concentrations of early juveniles were in the western Bay; few 
occurred in the eastern Bay. They occurred year-round and were most abundant from 
late summer to early winter in seagrasses. Initial distribution of the early juveniles in 
the Bay is effected by the flooding tide, which transports planktonic postlarval shrimp 
into the shallow nursery grounds where they settle as epibenthic postlarvae. The 
movement of postlarvae into the Bay is apparently facilitated by the rise in sea level 
from about April to October. Variations in sea level control the aereal extent of the 
shallow nursery grounds and may determine the abundance of early juveniles in the 
Bay, and the subsequent commercial production of adult shrimp on the offshore 
Tortugas Grounds. The postlarvae probably actively select areas of shoal grass, 
Halodule wrightii, for initial benthic settling. The early juveniles are closely associated 
with shoal grass as the primary habitat and may depend upon this species for survival. 
Optimum habitat for early juveniles is characterized by (1) relatively open marine 
water circulation with daily tidal exchange, and (2) broad intertidal or subtidal beds of 
shoal grass with high blade densities. Shoal grass, often favored by environmental 
disturbances, may be a critical factor in recruitment success of pink shrimp. 


1966 0 

Berner, R. A. (1966) Diagenesis of carbonate sediments: interaction of magnesium in 
seawater with mineral grains. Science . 153:188-191. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Samples of natural fine-grained 
carbonate sediment from Florida Bay, underwent mole-for-mole cation exchange with 
aqueous solutions of MgCI 2 and CaCI 2 in the laboratory. The exchange reaction, which 
involves the surface of the grains of sediments, can be essentially described by a 
simple mass action-law equation. Enrichment of Mg 2+ beyond the amounts found within 
particle interiors should take place on the surface of CaC0 3 sediments immersed in 
seawater; it may be on both exchangeable and unexchangeable sites. 


1 966 

Klukas, R. W. (1967) Factors affecting nesting success of loggerhead turtles at Cape Sable, 
Everglades National Park. Open File Rept. No. N1415. 58 P. South Florida Research Center, 
Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Efforts were 
initiated in spring 1966 to reduce the racoon population at Cape Sable by trapping in one 
area and setting aside another area in the rookery as a control area where no trapping 
was conducted. A comparison of the nesting success in the two areas indicated that 
live-trapping can be a very effective technique in controlling and reducing the amount 
of nest predation by racoons. Additional notes on the nesting success and behavior of 
loggerhead turtles nesting there, and data on the natural history of racoons near the 
rookery are provided. 


180 



1966 0 

Kontrovitz, M. (1966) A study of some Ostracoda of the Vaca Key, Florida Bay area. M. S. 
Thesis. University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE.] 


1 966 

Lee, C. C. (1969) The decomposition of organic matter in some shallow water, calcareous 

sediments of Little Blackwater Sound, Florida Bay. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Miami, 

Miami, FL. 106 pp + appendix. 

Nine cores from Little Black Water Sound (LBWS), Florida Bay, were sectioned and 
analyzed for pH, Eh, moisture, carbonate carbon, TOC, lipid carbon, as well as free 
fatty acids and glyceride fatty acids. Surface sediments between 0 and 4 cm deep were 
collected for laboratory degradation studies over a ten-week interval and TOC, lipid 
carbon, glyceride fatty acids and free fatty acids were analyzed at the end of each 
incubation period. The results of these analyses were correlated with measurements of 
the corresponding environmental parameters observed within the sediments (e.g. 
sediment composition, particle size, depth of sediment layer, moisture content, pH and 
Eh). The results from laboratory incubated sediments were also correlated with total 
bacterial counts. LBWS sediments showed two distinct distributions of organic carbon; 
values varied between 0.5 and 1.4% in shelly muds and between 1.9 and 13% in peaty 
sections. Concentrations of organic carbon increased with sediment depth; minimal 
amounts occurred within surface sections. Absolute concentrations of lipids for shelly 
muds were generally below 600 ng lipid C g * 1 sediment dry weight, but this amount 
constituted upwards of 8% of the total organic-carbon fraction. The distribution of 
lipids for peats, on the other hand, contained between 600 ng to 2.7 mg lipid C g -1 
sediment dry weight. However, peat lipids accounted for only 3% of the TOC content. 
As for TOC, lipid carbon levels increased with sediment depth. Minimal amounts were 
also found within the surface layers. Free, normal-fatty acids and normal-fatty acids 
from hydrolyzed triglycerides with carbon chain lengths of C 1Q to C 2Q were tentatively 
identified. C 16 and C 18 acids were the dominant acids detected. Although C 16 acid levels 
decreased with sediment depth and C 18 acid concentrations increased with sediment 
depth, no consistent patterns of distribution for the other acids were observed. An 
inverse-relationship of C 16 to C 18 acids was apparent and suggested an inter¬ 
dependence of the two acids resulting from selective utilization and production of one or 
the other acid is suspected and discussed. Degradation studies of incubated surface 
sediments indicated that the processes of organic matter degradation were cyclic and 
microbial in nature. The cycle begins with initial breakdown of readily usable 
substrates, synthesis of secondary products with depletion of usable substrate and the 
adaptation of either the same organisms to new substrates and environmental 
conditions or the development of new organisms to cope with the new conditions, 
followed by continued organic substrate utilization. Sampling was done in 1966. 


1966 0 

Scholl, D. W. (1966) Florida Bay: site of recent limestone formation. In: Encyclopedia of 
Oceanography . R. W. Fairbridge (ed.) Reinholt, NY. 85-93. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE.] 


1966 0 

Tabb, D. C. (1966) The estuary as a habitat for spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulous). A 
symposium on estuarine fisheries. Suppl. to Trans.. Amer. Fish. Soc. . Spec. Pub. No. 3. 
95(4):59-67. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The spotted seatrout is one of the 
most valuable fish of the southeastern United States. It is one of the few species that 


181 





depends on the changeable habitats of estuaries and lagoons, even spawning there. Both 
young and adults are tolerant of the normal environmental extremes of estuaries, 
which are too rigorous for most marine fishes. This enables the spotted seatrout to 
reproduce, and grow almost unhindered by predation and competition. Spotted seatrout 
populations of more northern estuaries apparently make seaward movements to escape 
winter cold but southern populations do not exhibit a strong offshore movement. They 
are nearly non migratory in Florida; tagging studies show that they seldom move more 
than 30 mi from the point of tagging. Since most of the favored estuarine areas are 
separated by long stretches of exposed seashore there is little exchange of stocks 
between estuary systems. The non migratory character of the species, when combined 
with differences in habitat, has resulted in spotted seatrout populations having 
different growth rates. Unfavorable conditions for feeding or spawning in any given 
estuary, which cause declines in abundance, are likely to be left for long periods since 
the region will not likely receive large numbers of immigrants from other estuaries. 

1966 - 1967 

Allen, D. M., and J. H. Hudson (1970) A sled-mounted suction sampler for benthic 
organisms. Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish. No. 614. US Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. 5 
PP- 

The sampler is an underwater vacuum device mounted on a sled; a venturi-type water 
dredge provides suction. This equipment collects quantitative samples of young pink 
shrimp, Penaeus duorarum, and is effective in capturing other small benthic organisms. 
Shrimp catching efficiency was compared with that of a benthic sled net in Florida Bay. 

1966 - 1967 

Idyll, C. P., E. S. Iversen, and B. J. Yokel (1968) Variations in abundance of juvenile pink 
shrimp emigrating from the Everglades National Park, in relation to the commercial catch. 
Circ. No. 295. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Galveston, 
TX. 13-14. 

This citation describes variations in abundance of juvenile pink shrimp emigrating from 
the Everglades National Park, in relation to the commercial catch. 

1966 - 1968 

Allen, D. M., J. H. Hudson, and T. J. Costello (1980) Postlarval shrimp ( Penaeus) in the 
Florida Keys: species, size, and seasonal abundance. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 30:21-33. 

Postlarval shrimp of the genus Penaeus were sampled for 32 months (January 1966 to 
August 1968) at Whale Harbor Channel in the Florida Keys. Most of the postlarvae were 
pink shrimp Penaeus duorarum; the majority had three dorsal rostral spines and were 
approximately 7.5 mm total length. P. duorarum postlarvae occurred year-round but 
were generally most abundant from April to September. The seasonal high in postlarval 
abundance was probably related to the annual increase in water temperature on the 
offshore spawning grounds and to the annual rise in sea level in the Florida Bay area. 
Seasonal abundances of postlarvae at Whale Harbor Channel were closely related to 
abundances of early juvenile P. duorarum on the Florida Bay nursery grounds. The 
juveniles are recruits to the offshore Tortugas shrimp fishery located west of Key 
West, Florida. 

1966 - 1981 

Browder, J. A. (1985) Relationship between pink shrimp production on the Tortugas 
grounds and water flow patterns in the Florida Everglades. Bull. Mar, Sci. . 37(3):839-56. 
Regression analysis indicated a relationship between landings of pink shrimp on the 
Tortugas grounds and freshwater runoff to the estuarine areas of Everglades National 
Park, as indexed by water levels in the Park. Landings, catch per unit effort (pounds 


1 82 




per hour fished), and effort (vessel-hours fished) from 1966 to 1981 are displayed 
graphically in the paper. A strong positive relationship between quarterly (3-month 
landings and the average water level of the previous quarter was found for three 
quarters of the year. October through December water levels, followed by July through 
September water levels, may have had the greatest influence on annual landings. An 
inverse relationship between landings and water levels from April through June was 
not precluded. Information of this type is needed in order that the freshwater needs of 
estuarine-dependent marine organisms can be taken into account in water management 
planning. 


1967 0 

Berner, R. A. (1967) Comparative dissolution characteristics of carbonate minerals in the 

presence and absence of aqueous magnesium ion. Am. J. Sci. . 265(1 ):45-70. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Short term (5-25 hrs) steady 
state pH has been measured for the dissolution of reagent grade calcite, Deep Spring 
Lake dolomite, and Florida Bay sediment (aragonite plus 14 mode mole percent Mg 
calcite) in distilled water and 0.1 m MgCI 2 solution at 25°C and constant P C02 (1 and 
10-2.51 atm). Results indicate that calcite and dolomite can each show a constant ion 
activity product in the presence and absence of high concentrations of dissolved Mg +2 if 
unground samples are used and steady state approached from undersaturation. 
Measured ion activity product values are: calcite, 10 - 8.87; dolomite, 10 - 17.0. 
Unground Florida Bay sediment does not show simple reversible behavior in either 
solution. The solubility in distilled water is partly controlled by the rate of 
recrystallization of high-Mg calcite to more stable forms of CaC0 3 and is affected by 
the amount of surface area exposed to the solution. Dissolved Mg +2 causes a definite 
depression in the steady state pH and ion activity product of Florida Bay sediment 
below values predicted from the measure pH in distilled water at the same P C02 - The 
lowered pH is probably due in part to decreased rates of solution and loss of Mg from 
high-Mg calcite. Inhibition of low-Mg calcite nucleation may also result in a reversible 
equilibrium involving Mg ions and the grain surfaces. Experiments with mixed CaCI 2 - 
MgCI 2 solution demonstrate that this hypothetical Mg-enriched surface is not simply 
dolomite (non-exchangeable) or ideal, exchangeable CaC0 3 - MgCQ 3 . 


1967 

Costello, T. J., and D. M. Allen (1968) Florida Bay ecology studies. Circ. No. 268. Bureau of 
Commercial Fisheries, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Galveston, TX. 9-11. 

[ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] The first year of an on-going benthic ecology 
study on post larval and juvenile pink shrimp in eastern Florida Bay was completed. 
Variations in abundance of postlarvae collected at Whale Harbor Channel and other Keys 
bridges by plankton nets were compared to juvenile shrimp densities on the nursery 
grounds. Associated organisms collected in suction dredge samples were used to 
determine habitat types preferred by pink shrimp. Peaks of abundance for small shrimp 
and associated organisms appeared in August and November and followed postlarvae 
abundance peaks on bridge sites by one month. 


1967 0 

Hoffmeister, J. E., K. W. Stockman, and H. G. Multer (1967) Miami limestone of Florida and 
its recent Bahamian counterpart. Geol. Soc. Amer, Bull., 78:175-90. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The Miami Oolite, named by 
Sanford for the oolitic limestone of Pleistocene age which covers a large part of the 
southern tip of Florida, has been found to consist of two separate units: an upper unit, 
herein designated the oolitic facies; and a lower unit, called here the bryozoan facies. In 


183 




this paper the two units are combined as the Miami Limestone, a formational name 
which now seems more appropriate than the Miami Oolite. The bryozoan facies, the 
dominant constituents of which are massive compound colonies of the cheilostome 
bryozoan Schizoporella floridana Osburn surrounded by ooids and pellets, covers the 
greater part of Dade County and extends in places into adjoining counties, a total area 
of about 2000 square miles. It averages 10 ft in thickness in southeastern Florida and 
thins to 1 ft or so westward to the Gulf of Mexico. It is the surface rock of the 
southern Everglades and is one of the most extensive bryozoan limestones in the 
country. In southeastern Florida, it is covered by an elongated mound of crossbedded 
oolitic limestone, the upper unit or oolitic facies. This is the rock of the southern end of 
the Atlantic Coastal Ridge, with a maximum thickness of 35 ft under the Ridge summit 
thinning westward toward the low-lying Everglades as it encroaches over the bryozoan 
fancies. Interest in the origin of the two units has been heightened recently by the 
recognition of similar deposits that are being actively produced in a nearby area. 
Immediately east of Miami on the western edge of the Great Bahama Bank, strung in a 
north south line, are the islands of Bimini, Cat Cay, Sandy Cay, etc., the region 
described by Newell and others. East of the Cays and parallel to them, large underwater 
mound of unstable oolite is forming, and east of the mound in the shallow lagoon 
massive, tubular bryozoans (Schizoporella floridana Osburn) are growing. The oolite 
from the mound is slowly encroaching over the bryozoan beds. The bathymetric and 
ecologic conditions now extant in this area are probably similar to those which existed 
during the Pleistocene to form the units of the Miami Limestone. The eastern slope of 
the unstable oolite mound of the Cat Cay and Sandy Cay area is cut by tidal channels 
which run normal to the direction of the mound itself. Narrow valleys, similar to these 
channels, can be found in the indurated rock of the oolitic facies of the Atlantic Coastal 
Ridge. The valleys probably had their origin as channels produced by tidal currents at 
the time the oolite mound of the Ridge was in an unstable condition. It is also believed 
that the shape and orientation of the Lower Keys of Florida originated in a similar 
fashion. 


1967 

Idyll, C. P., and M. Roessler (1968) Relation of variations in abundance of juvenile pink 
shrimp emigrating from the Everglades National Park estuary to the commercial catch. 
Circ. No. 268. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Galveston, 
TX. 11-2. 

This citation describes variations in abundance of juvenile pink shrimp emigrating from 
the Everglades National Park to the commercial catch. 


1967 

Idyll, C. P., and M. Roeslerr (1968) Seasonal changes in relative abundance of postlarvae of 
pink shrimp entering the Everglades estuary. Circ. No. 268. Bureau of Commercial 
Fisheries, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Galveston, TX. 12. 

This citation describes seasonal changes in relative abundance of postlarvae of pink 
shrimp entering the Everglades estuary during 1967. 


1967 0 

Muller, G., and J. Muller (1967) Mineralogisch-Sedimentpetrographische Und Chemische 
Unterschungen An Einem Bank-Sediment (Cross-Bank) der Florida Bay, U.S.A. N. jb. Miner. 
Abh. 106(3):257-86. 

(NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] The sediments of 
a core of 1.6 m in length taken on the windward side of Cross Bank, Florida Bay, are 
divided into two portions, as shown by grain size analysis. A description of each 
portion is given, along with sediment composition based on changing grain size. Based on 
a thin layer of sand, a catastrophic event is indicated in the Florida Bay region. 


184 


1967 0 

Price, W. A. (1967) Development of the basin - basin honeycomb of Florida Bay and the 
northern Cuban Lagoon. Trans. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc. . 17:368-99. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] A 
geomorphological synthesis of geological and ecological data on Florida Bay is provided 
by the author as follows: Florida Bay, a triangular 1,000-sq mile, bimodally windy, 
sub-tropical lagoon is a honey comb of closely spaced, interconnecting, sub-oval, pan¬ 
shaped basins individually upwards of 10 miles long and 12 ft deep. It lies north-south 
between mangrove swamp belts along the mainland of of the Everglades Ntional Park 
and the emergent barrier reef of the Florida Keys. Basin walls of Holocene marl made 
stable by alterations of mangrove swamp bands and marine grasses form a honeycomb 
pattern trough the lagoon. Basin areas and depths increase irregularly southward. No 
process of accumulation adequate by itself to form such honeycombs is known. The 
genetic process was the drowning and embayment of oriented lakes formed in drowned 
marsh rills. 


1967 0 

Scholl, D. W., and F. C. Craighead (1967) Recent geological history of the west coast of 

Florida; coastal mangrove swamps, and Florida Bay. Trans.. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc. . 

17:481. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The Recent 
(last 10,000 — 11,000 yrs ) geologic history of the northeastern corner of the Gulf of 
Mexico, i.e., western and southern continental shelves of peninsular Florida, is 
recorded by the character and stratigraphy of outer-shelf and nearshore deposits. 
These deposits chiefly reflect the interplay of a generally rising sea level and the 
proximity of sources of terrigenous detritus, especially detrital quartz. For example, 
seaward of west-central Florida the outer shelf is essentially a bedrock surface 
overlain by a thin veneer of bioclastic sediment and biogenic reef growths that initially 
formed in a shallow nearshore environment. In contrast, the inner part of the shelf is 
flooded with shelly quartz sand or silt. Some of this detrital debris has been 
transferred to the shore to form prisms of quartzose beach sand, tracks of prograding 
beach ridges, and high coastal dunes. The quartz is chiefly derived from reworking of 
residual shelf and terrace deposits and drowned coastal plain sediments of Pleistocene 
age. Sources of detrital quartz disappear to the south, consequently the inner belt of 
quartzose deposits narrows and becomes increasingly mixed with shell debris and finer 
calcilutaceous components in this direction. As an important constituent of shelf 
sediments, detrital quartz essentially vanishes by the latitude of Cape Sable. Attesting 
to this, the carbonate content of unconsolidated sediment in Florida Bay (immediately 
south of the Cape) averages close to 90%. This sediment is primarily composed of 
comminuted molluscan, foraminiferal, and algal debris, 80-85% of which consists of 
"metastable" aragonite and high-magnesian calcite. The calcarenitic and calcilutaceous 
deposits of Florida Bay are as much as 4 m thick and overlie a thin stratum of 
freshwater peaty and calcareous sediment resting on a karsed bedrock surface of 
Pleistocene age. The basal freshwater deposits have a radiocarbon age of 
approximately 4000 yrs, which implies that sea level at this time was about 4 m lower 
than its present position. Also beginning about 4000 yrs ago marine water slowly 
inundated the western margin of the freshwater swamps of the Everglades, thereby 
providing the necessary paralic environment for the growth of the magnificent coastal 
mangrove forest and swamps of southwestern Florida. Strata underlying submerged 
waterways, intra-forest bays and tidal channels of the swamps form a simple 
transgressive sequence consisting of a basal freshwater unit of peat and calcite mud, a 
middle unit of paralic and brackish-water peat, and an upper marine unit of organic-rich 


185 




quartzose sediment or shell debris. Deposits underlying the floor of the mangrove 
forest, or associated salt-grass marshes, range from peaty and calcareous quartzose 
sand and silt to compact, fibrous autochthonous peat. These organic rich units also 
attest to approximately 4 m of marine submergence during the last 4000 yrs. 
Concomitant with this submergence a rather complicated sequence of peaty and 
calcareous sediments accumulated along the western margin of the Everglades. If 
lithified, the modern shelf and coastal deposits of the northeastern corner of the Gulf of 
Mexico would be mapped as a somewhat discontinuous and slightly time-transgressive 
stratigraphic sequence consisting of a variety of shallow-water facies composed of 
mixtures of three lithologic end members: (1) calcarenite and calcilutite, (2) quartzose 
sandstone and siltstone, and (3) coal. These facies, and their stratigraphic 
relationships, duplicate some of the essential aspects of Paleozoic cyclotherms. 


1967 0 

Scholl, D. W., and M. Stuiver (1967) Recent submergence of southern Florida: A 
comparison with adjacent coasts and other eustatic data. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. . 78:437- 
54. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Submergence data gathered in 
southern Florida indicate that approximately 4400 yrs ago (in terms of radiocarbon 
years) sea level was about 4 m lower than today's level. Between 4400 and 3500 BP, 
sea level rose at a rate close to 30 cm 100 yr' 1 (1.0 ft century' 1 ). About 3500 BP, 
when sea level stood below its contemporary position, the rate of rise diminished by a 
factor of five; since 1700 BP, the rate of rise has averaged only about 3 cm 100 yr' 1 
(0.1 ft century 1 ). Because a consirable body of evidence points to the probable tectonic 
stability of southern Florida in Recent time, the recorded submergence us regarded as a 
measure of an eustatic change in sea level. The Florida submergence curve shows that 
sea level has risen more or less steadily to its present level during the last 4400 yrs. 
This differs significantly from the hypothesis that sea level rose 2 - 4 m above its 
present position during this time. The Florida submergence data also do not support a 
strict interpretation of the stable sea-level hypothesis, i.e., that sea level reached its 
present position (and maintained it) sometime between 3000 and 5000 yrs ago. This 
citation mainly discusses the Whitewater Bay region. [See Smith and Coleman (1967) 
and Scholl and Stuiver (1967) for comments and reply on this paper.] 


1967 0 

Smith, W. G., and J. M. Coleman (1967) Recent submergence of southern Florida: 

Discussion. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. . 78:1191-4. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Many of the dated samples 
reported by Scholl and Stuiver (1967) probably cannot be as closely related to past sea 
level as their small margins of error would suggest. More evidence of the true nature 
of the materials dated and the environments in which they accumulated must be 
provided. In the low-relief area of the Everglades and adjacent swamps, the materials 
used probably generally reflect the last phase of sea-level rise. More precise 
determinations seem necessary, however, before acceptance of the area as a standard 
of comparison for other coasts. 


1967 0 

Scholl, D. W., and M. Stuiver (1967) Recent submergence of southern Florida: reply. Geol. 
Soc. Am. Bull. . 78(9):1 195-8. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This is a reply to the comments 
by Smith and Coleman (1967) of the authors' paper on submergence (Scholl and 
Stuiver, 1967). 


186 






1 967 

Tabb, D. C., T. R. Alexander, T. T. Thomas, and N. Maynard (1967) The physical, biological, 
and geological character of the area south of C-111 Canal in extreme southeastern 
Everglades National Park. Final Report for Contract 14-10-1-160-11. Rosenstiel School of 
Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL. 55 pp. 

A topographic map of the region was constructed using the elevation of the periphyton 
(fibrous algal growth) on plant stems as an indication of the depth of seasonal flooding. 
These depths were, in turn, converted to elevations (i.e., the deepest flooding 
represented topographic lows and the shallowest flooding indicated topographic highs. 
Variations in these measurements from station to station represented approximate 
contours. Maximum ground-level variation observed in the area was 8.5 in. Salinity 
observations show that the freshwater (0.0 to 5.0 %o) zone extends completely 
across the study area from east to west and covers 35.6% of the 45.5 square mile land 
area studied. They also showed that salinity of 20 %o and higher exist in the canal 
below the plug at Highway 1 while the water immediately above the plug has no 
measurable salinity. Studies of animal distribution indicate that freshwater animals 
were found over 60.0% of the total land area. Studies of flowering plants indicate that 
freshwater species cover 42.4% of the land area. Mature hammock growth formed by 
these species indicate long-term freshwater conditions. Studies of unicellular plants of 
the periphyton show that freshwater forms cover 36.0% of the area under the 
observed dry season conditions. The nature of the sediments was determined by x-ray 
diffraction techniques and show that 68.2% of the study area was covered by pure 
calcite marl, thus indicating a long period of freshwater conditions. It is concluded that 
these studies, which were arrived at separately by different investigators, offer 
convincing proof of the freshwater character of soils, plants and animals of about 50% 
of the total land area within the study area. The study of the topography suggests that 
should saline spillover occur from C-111 canal, there would be a southwestward 
spread of the effects of this spill. This would be reflected most rapidly by the 
unicellular algae of the periphyton, then by salt-sensitive higher plants, and shortly 
thereafter by a disappearance of freshwater fishes and invertebrates. It is also 
concluded that although hurricanes such as Betsy of September 1965 occasionally push 
seawater onto the study area, the salt is rapidly flushed back into the sea by the 
accompanying heavy rains that normally accompany such storms, and effects other 
than by outright destruction by winds is transient. 


1967 0 

Taft, W. H. (1967) Modern carbonate sediments. Carbonate Rocks: Origin. Occurrence and 
Classification . G. V. Chilingar, H. J. Bissell, and R. W. Fairbridge (eds.) Developments in 
Sedimentology 9A. Elsevier, New York. 29-50. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Modern carbonate sediments are 
accumulating in almost all depositional environments except for the very deep oceans. 
Chemical and physical conditions, however, govern preservation and abundance of 
carbonate relative to non-carbonate material. Most modern marine carbonate sediments 
owe their origin to accumulation of bioclastic debris. Rarely can inorganic precipitation 
be actually proven. Mineralogical analysis of these sediments has shown that deep cold- 
water carbonates are predominantly low-magnesium calcites; whereas shallow, warm- 
water shelf deposits are composed predominantly of metastable carbonates (aragonite 
and high-magnesium calcite) with minor amounts of low-magnesium calcite. Significant 
quantities of supratidal dolomite has been reported in modern sediments. Diagenesis is 
taking place in modern sediments; however, only rarely can mineralogical or chemical 
changes be demonstrated in sediments that have not been exposed to freshwater. If 
modern shelf sediments are good examples of ancient sediments, almost all limestones 
have recrystallized. Florida Bay is one of the areas discussed. 


187 




1967 0 

Wickham, D. A. (1967) Observations on the activity patterns in juveniles of the pink 
shrimp, Penaeus duorarum. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 17(4):769-86. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The daily pattern of locomotor 
and burrowing activity of juveniles of Penaeus duorarum was observed in the 
laboratory under constant conditions of light intensity, water current, and water level. 
A bimodal pattern of nocturnal activity with a period of diurnal burrowing was 
observed near the times of the new and the full moon. A daily progression in the times 
of nocturnal activity peaks was observed which appeared to correspond with the 
normal daily tide progression in the area of capture. The rhythmic pattern in the 
behavior of P. duorarum was persistent, but could be modified by experimentally 
changing light regimes and water levels. This study indicated that activity of pink 
shrimp at any given time in the field is probably a resultant of the interaction of the 
environmental stimuli which are present and the rhythmic patterns of the previously 
experienced stimuli. 


1967 0 

Yokel, B. J., M. A. Roessler and E. S. Iversen (1967) Fishes and juvenile stages of pink 
shrimp ( Penaeus duorarum) collected in Buttonwood Canal, Florida, December 1962 to June 
1965. Data Rep. Serv. No. 22. US Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. 58 pp. 

[NO COPY OF THE PAPER AVAILABLE.] 

1967 - 1968 

Chuensri, C. (1968) A morphometric and meristic study of postlarval brown shrimp, 
Penaeus aztecus Ives, pink shrimp, Penaeus duorarum Burkenroad, and white shrimp, P. 
setiferus (Linneaus). M. S. Thesis. University of Miami., Coral Gables, FL. 108 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] A morphometric and meristic 
study of postlarval brown shrimp, Penaeus aztecus Ives, pink shrimp, P. duorarum 
Burkenroad, and white shrimp, P. setiferus (Linnaeus) was conducted at the Institute of 
Marine Sciences during 1967 and 1968. The purposes of the study were to develop a 
simple method of distinguishing the three species and to quantitatively analyze the 
various characteristics used. A total of 2,201 collected specimens were examined. 
Collection sites included Buttonwood Canal and Little Shark River in Everglades National 
Park, the Dry Tortugas area near Key West, and Upper Matecumbe in Florida; Barataria 
Bay and Vermilion Bay in Louisiana; Mississippi Sound in Mississippi; Bogue Inlet in 
North Carolina; the North Edisto River and Prince Inlet in South Carolina; and Galveston 
Bay in Texas. Twenty one laboratory reared P. aztecus and 3 laboratory reared P. 
duorarum were also examined. The collected specimens ranged from 2.60 mm in total 
length with 1 dorsal rostral spine to 18.45 mm in total length with 10 dorsal and 2 
ventral rostral spines. The maximum number of dorsal and ventral rostral spines of one 
postlarva was 11 and 3 respectively. A new morphological character, the connection 
between the anterior edge of the carapace at the orbit and the lateral side of the 
rostrum, was used to distinguish postlarval P. setiferus from P. aztecus and P. 
duorarum. In the former species, the connection is described as abrupt, and in the 
latter two species, it is described as gradually closing. All of the P. setiferus and 95% 
of the P. duorarum could be distinguished from P. aztecus by the relationship between 
the carapace length and sixth abdominal segment length at the 95% level of confidence. 
The calculations are as follows: 


Y c = b + m 


X 


o 


188 



Variation of Y 0 would fall between Y c - 1.96 S y x and Y c + 1.96 S y x at the 95% level of 
confidence, where Y is the sixth abdominal segment length (0.05 mm); x is the 
carapace length (0.05 mm); b is the Y intercept; m is the slope of regression line; c is 
the subscript for 'calculated*; o is the subscript for 'observed*; and S y x is the 
standard error of estimate for linear correlation. The sixth abdominal segment was 
greater than 2.65 mm in 92% of the P. aztecus postlarvae, but only in one of the P. 
duorarum postlarvae. All postlarval P. aztecus could be distinguished from P. duorarum 
by averaging the deviation of individuals regressions between 7 pairs of morphometric 
characters: carapace length and sixth abdominal segment length, carapace length and 
rostrum length, carapace length and eyestalk length, carapace length and antennal scale 
length, carapace length and antennal spine length, rostrum length and eyestalk length, 
and antennal scale length and antennal spine length. The individual was assigned to the 
species from whose 7 regression lines showed the least average deviation. The 
calculations for average deviation from regression lines are as follows: 


Y c = b + m X Q 
Y - Y 

c o 



where Z is the deviation from regression line; and Z the average deviation from 
regression lines. The values of b, m and S y x for each species according to the number 
of dorsal rostral spines present are given in the citation. The laboratory reared 
specimens confirmed that the absence of dorsal carina spines on the sixth abdominal 
segment of P. setiferus can be used to segregate it from P. aztecus and P. duorarum 
only if the shrimp has more than 5 dorsal rostral spines. Approximately 49% of the P. 
aztecus had the lateral spine longer than the tip of the antennal scale, and 2% of them 
had the lateral spine equal to the tip of the antennal scale. The third pereiod in 75% of 
all specimens examined in the present study was found to extend beyond the eye. Four 
out of 962 postlarval shrimp from Florida waters were morphometrically similar to P. 
aztecus. The remaining 958 specimens were morphometrically identified as P. 
duorarum. 

1967 - 1968 

Manker, J. P. (1969) Origin and distribution of silicate minerals in a carbonate 

environment, Florida Bay. M. S. Thesis. University of South Florida, Tampa, FL. 49 pp. 

Chlorite, montmorillonite, illite, and kaolinite have been found in the clay-size insoluble 
residue or Recent carbonate sediments of Florida Bay. Clay mineral distributions in the 
study area can be described in terms of two end-member assemblages. They are 
characterized by: (1) chlorite, which is dominant in the eastern portion of the Bay; and 
(2) montmorillonite, which is dominant in the western bay region. The distribution of 
these two end-members is apparently related to source area (e.g., Gulf of Mexico for 
the Western bay area and the Atlantic coastal currents for the eastern Bay region). 
Illite is a minor component and is distributed in a manner parallel to chlorite. Kaolinite 
is also present in small quantities, but its areal distribution could not be delineated 
accurately. A restricted areal distribution of the two end-members exists due to the 
inhibiting action of many near-surface, carbonate mud banks on the exchange of water 


189 






between eastern and western portions of Florida Bay. Samples were collected in 1967 
and 1968. 

1967 - 1969 

Green, M. A. (1975) Survey of endolithic organisms from the Northeast Bering Sea, 

Jamaica, and Florida Bay. M. S. Thesis, Duke University. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] A comparative 
analysis of endolithic organisms within carbonate substrates from polar and tropical 
regions was undertaken to determine to what extent these microboring assemblages 
differ and what microboring organisms are present in each regime. Substrates were 
retrieved from Jamaica and from sites in Swash Keys Basin and Long Sound, Florida 
Bay. Assemblages observed in Florida Bay samples were composed primarily of blue- 
green algae (Mastigocoleus testarum, Plectonema sp., Hyella caespitosa) and green 
algae ( Ostreobium brantium). Little distinction could be made between endolithic 
assemblages from Jamaica and Florida Bay. 

1967 - 1968 

Heald, E. J. (1969) The production of organic detritus in a south Florida estuary. Ph. D. 

Dissertation. University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL. 110 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] [Also publ. as: 
Sea Grant Tech. Bull. No. 6, Univ. of Miami Sea Grant Prog., Miami, FI. 1-110 p. 
(1971).] During 1967 and 1968 in the North River, the annual production of organic 
debris by red mangrove, Juncus, and sawgrass was studied. The rate of decomposition 
and the manner of degradation were determined, as well as the total contribution by 
each producer to the detrital load of the river. It was found that annual production 
exceeded 3 metric tons acre' 1 , of this, 90% was produced by red mangrove. 
Degradation of red mangrove leaves was most rapid in brackish water as opposed to 
freshwater and the terrestrial environs. Two species of amphipods and a xanthid crab 
were consumers in brackish water. Seasonally the quantity of detritus was highest in 
the river from November - February; mangrove detritus accounted for 35-60% of the 
total suspended material month* 1 . The nutritive value of mangrove detritus, its 
significance as an energy source in the estuarine ecosystem, and the importance of the 
mangrove community to adjoining bays are considered. 


1968 0 

Hughes, D. A. (1968) Factors controlling emergence of pink shrimp ( Penaeus duorarum) 

from the substrate. Biol. Bull. . 134:48-59. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] A close relationship exists 
between the day-night cycle and the times of activity of pink shrimp. The shrimp bury 
beneath the substrate during the day but emerge at the time of sunset and are active at 
night. Emergence from the substrate is markedly synchronized in all members of the 
population. This study elucidates the mechanisms whereby this synchrony is 
maintained. The persistence of the pattern of nocturnal activity for several days under 
conditions of constant low light intensity confirmed that emergence and subsequent 
activity were under rhythmic control. Resynchronization of the phase of the rhythm 
controlling emergence to a shift in the light-dark cycle indicated that the light-dark 
cycle itself, or some component of it, is responsible for maintaining the relationship 
between emergence and the day-night regime. The close association between emergence 
and the time of light-dark transition indicated the possibility that the latter was the 
important component of the Zeitgeber responsible for the control of the time of 
emergence. This was supported by experiments in which a changing responsiveness was 
shown to light-dark transitions imposed at various times during the light period. 
Maximum response (in terms of the rate and degree of emergence from the substrate) 


190 



occurred when a light-dark transition was imposed at a time (18:00) to which the 
shrimp had previously been entrained to receive the onset of the dark period. 
Experiments in which shrimp, which had been fed 24 hr previously, emerged from the 
substrate and carried out food-searching movements, in the absence of food and despite 
high intensity illumination, which would normally suppress emergence, indicated the 
presence of a feeding rhythm with an approximate 24-hr periodicity. The feeding 
rhythm probably accounts for the fact that the phase of the rhythm of emergency was 
resynchronized to a shifted light-dark cycle in three days among shrimp fed 
immediately following the shifted cycle, as opposed to six days in those deprived of 
food during this time of entrainment. The phases of the two rhythms, being almost 
identical, probably supplement each other. Shrimp smaller than 4 cm (total length) 
emerged significantly earlier than larger individuals. This possibly reflects the lesser 
dependence of the early juveniles on inherent rhythms and consequently their greater 
receptivity to exogenous stimuli. The most obvious advantage of the circadian rhythm 
controlling emergence and subsequent activity is to confine the times of activity of 
shrimp to the hours of darkness when predation by fish is minimal. The proximity of the 
phase of the 24-hr feeding rhythm to the circadian rhythm of emergence and activity 
probably serves to strengthen the entrainment properties of the latter such that the 
time of emergence is further synchronized between all members of the population. The 
synchrony of the time of emergence is probably important for the maintenance of 
cohesion between aggregations of shrimp. 


1968 0 

Multer, H. G., and J. E. Hoffmeister (1968) Subaerial laminated crusts of the Florida Keys. 

Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. . 79:183-92. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Exposed Pleistocene marine 
limestones of the Florida Keys are often coated with laminated 1-to-6-cm-thick calcitic 
crusts. Heretofore these crusts have locally been identified as indurated marine algal 
stromatolites similar to the soft, marine, living algal stromatolitic mats of the Florida 
Keys, which border and occasionally coat the encrusted bedrock; such juxtaposition is 
now considered merely coincidental. 14 C dating of five different crust samples reveals 
a time of formation (within the last 4395 ± 90 yrs) during which the land surface was 
above sea level. Field relationships and laboratory evidence also indicate subaerial 
origin. Three general types of crusts are: (1) microcrystalline rind, (2) dense 
laminated, and (3) porous laminated. Similar laminated crusts found in subsurface cores 
suggest emergence followed by submergence of the Key Largo reef in late Pleistocene 
time. Proper identification of such subaerially formed laminated crusts, to distinguish 
them from similar-appearing crusts formed in marine environments, is necessary for 
correct interpretation of paleoenvironments and former sea level fluctuations. Thin 
crusts may be the only evidence in recognizing some ancient unconformities. 

1968 - 1974 

Ogden, J. C. (1975) Effects of bald eagle territoriality on nesting ospreys. Wilson Bull. . 

87(4):496-505. 

Interspecific territoriality has been defined as aggressive territorial behavior 
persistently performed by individuals of a species against individuals of different 
species. Little attention has been given to documenting the effects of this behavior on 
nesting success of conflicting species. This paper is a study of the productivity and 
factors affecting nesting success in ospreys (Pandion haliaetus). It was found that 
osprey nesting success in the study area was affected by territorial behavior of bald 
eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). It was also noted that the interspecific relationship 
between the ospreys and bald eagles differed in some aspects from forms of 
interspecific territoriality previously described. This paper describes the interspecific 


191 




territoriality exhibited by bald eagles toward ospreys, and quantifies the effect of this 
behavior on osprey nesting success and nest-site selection. This study took place from 
1968 to 1974 in Florida Bay. 

1968 - 1975 

Ogden, J. C. (1978) Status and nesting biology of the American crocodile, Crocodylus 

acutus, (Reptilia, Crocodilidae) in Florida. J. HerpetoL 12(2):183-96. 

This project was designed to determine the status of the American Crocodile in Florida 
and the factors regulating that population. Estimates of the historical and present range 
show that the nesting range has been considerably reduced during the 20th Century, 
including continued reduction in Florida Bay since that region became a part of 
Everglades National Park in 1950. Crocodiles in Florida Bay and on Key Largo are mound 
nesters, utilizing well-drained beaches, creek banks and abandoned canal levees as 
nesting sites. Females usually maintain primary and secondary mounds that are 
repeatedly used through many years. Average clutch size is 44; about 48% of the eggs 
hatch in successful nests, while the annual average number of successful nests is 65%. 
Most nesting failures are due to raccoon predation or failure of eggs to hatch, the latter 
probably a temperature problem in certain types of nests. The total number of 
crocodiles in south Florida early in the 20th century may have been between 1,000 and 
2,000 animals, but that total has steadily declined to the present. Based on an 
estimated 20 breeding females per year and an average 275 hatchling crocodiles 
produced annually, the 1970s population is estimated to be between 100 and 400 
animals. Factors that regulate the population, including low nesting success, human 
disturbance, and hurricanes, are discussed. 

1968 - 1984 

Fleming, D. M., N. C. Kline, and W. B. Robertson (1989) A comparison of osprey nesting 

distribution, abundance and success in Florida Bay from 1968 to 1984. Symp. on Florida 

Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1):517. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY.] Declines in the Florida Bay osprey population have been documented. 
A 58% decrease in the number of nesting ospreys (Pandion halliaetus) occurred from 
1970 to 1980. This decrease was believed related to reduced productivity caused by 
lower food supplies. Objectives of this study were to: (1) assess the current status and 
trend of nesting ospreys in Florida Bay, (2) analyze the spatial distribution of osprey 
productivity throughout the Bay in relation to selected environmental factors; (3) 
examine possible hypotheses concerning the Bay osprey population decline, and (4) 
evaluate osprey population status and trend as indicators of habitat change in the Bay. 
Current osprey nesting distribution, abundance and success were compared to that 
reported in previous studies. The spatial distribution of osprey productivity throughout 
the Bay was investigated by factor and discriminate analyses of environmental 
variables. Although the number of nesting ospreys remained relatively low and 
productivity was variable, the population appeared to have stabilized in recent years. 
Osprey productivity occurred primarily on islands adjacent to the mainland coastline of 
northern Florida Bay. Within this region, areas with islands of high osprey productivity 
were characterized by high relative abundances of fish prey species in close proximity 
to bank and/or shallow water habitats, and relatively low occurrences of mammalian 
predators (i.e., raccoons). An apparent relationship was also noted between annual 
rainfall and salinity variability, the relative abundance of important fish prey species, 
and subsequent osprey productivity. No such relationship appears to exist with the 
number of breeding pairs. Excluding the adverse effects of unseasonal weather events, 
osprey productivity appears to be a good indicator of macrohabitat changes that may 
occur in Florida Bay each year as a result of annual stochastic environmental 
variability. However, the usefulness of osprey population trends as an indicator of long 


192 




term changes in Florida Bay ecosystem processes remains unclear. Until additional 
information is obtained on the loss of adults, and subadult dispersal and recruitment 
rates to the breeding population, osprey population trends as Indicators of habitat 
change in Florida Bay could not be substantiated. 


1969 0 

Hughes, D. A. (1969) On the mechanisms underlying tide-associated movements of Penaeus 
duorarum. FAQ Fish. Rep. . 57(3):867-74. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Postlarval shrimp move inshore 
on flood tides while juveniles move offshore on ebb tides. The mechanism whereby this 
discrimination between the tides is effected appears to be based on the respective 
response of postlarvae and juveniles to changes in salinity. Juveniles are positively 
rheotactic within a current of water. However, when the salinity of that water is 
decreased downstream swimming ensues. This ensures that juveniles will, in nature, 
resist displacement in an inshore direction by the flood tide but will swim and be placed 
in an offshore direction by the ebb tide. When the salinity increases (flood tide), they 
become active in the water column and are displaced inshore. The apparent dependence 
of tide associated movements on changes in salinity points to an explanation for the 
positive correlations that have been found between the extent of rainfall in the vicinity 
of "nursery" areas and the commercial catch of the following year. 


1969 0 

Hughes, D. A. (1969) Evidence for the endogenous control of swimming in pink shrimp, 

Penaeus duorarum. Biol. Bull. . 136:398-404. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Evidence that the swimming of 
migrating juvenile pink shrimp is under some measure of endogenous control was 
derived from experiments which indicated (1) that the pattern of swimming exhibited 
by a group of shrimp, maintained under constant conditions within a current of water, 
was similar over each of the two nights following their collection from nature, and (2) 
that the swimming of two such groups, collected together, but maintained in separate 
current chambers within the laboratory, was similar during the night following their 
capture. Endogenous control over swimming extended to the sign of rheotaxis which, 
during certain nights, in the absence of change in external conditions, would reverse in 
all shrimp at approximately the same time. A predictable relationship occurred between 
the tide cycle to which shrimp were exposed prior to capture and their subsequent 
swimming in the laboratory. The adaptive nature of this relationship is suggested from 
the fact that downstream swimming, which in nature occurs only during ebb tides, and 
facilitates the offshore movements of juveniles, occurred in the laboratory only at the 
time of ebb tides in nature. It did not, however, occur at the time of all ebb tides but 
only during those occurring early in the evening. It is suggested that the cohesion of the 
aggregations of migrating shrimp may largely be maintained by means of the synchrony 
imposed on the activities of all individuals by endogenous timing mechanisms. 


1969 0 

Hughes, D. A. (1969) Responses to salinity change as the tidal transport mechanism of pink 
shrimp, Penaeus duorarum. Biol. Bull. . 136:43-53. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The inshore movements of 
postlarval pink shrimp and the subsequent offshore movements of the juveniles are 
facilitated by flood and ebb tides respectively. This investigation concerns the 
behavioral mechanisms involved in the selective use of one tide and the evasion of the 
other. Salinity changes, similar to those occurring with change in tide in the inshore 
environment usually occupied by pink shrimp, were imposed on both postlarvae and 
juveniles in a constant-current apparatus. Juvenile shrimp were almost invariably 


193 





positively rheotactic. However, with a decrease in salinity the sign of the response 
was reversed, resulting in active downstream swimming. This often gave way to 
passive drifting. Under conditions of low light intensity postlarvae were active in the 
water column, and being unable to withstand even slow currents were easily displaced. 
With a decrease in salinity they sank to the substrate or remained low in the water 
column where they were better able to maintain position. Responses of postlarvae at a 
discontinuity barrier between bodies of water differing in salinity indicated their 
ability to perceive differences as small as 1 %o. There was an 'aversion* to 
penetrating such a barrier into water of lower salinity. Smaller postlarvae were more 
'averse' to the barrier than others approximately a week older. If similar responses 
are elicited in nature during the flood tides, juveniles would orientate and swim against 
the current in an offshore direction, while postlarvae, by being active in the water 
column, would be displaced shoreward. Following the decrease in salinity which 
accompanies the ebb tide the juveniles would swim, or be passively displaced, with the 
current, again in an offshore direction, and the postlarvae would sink low in the water 
column or settle on the substrate from where they are better able to resist 
displacement. 


1969 0 

Manker, J. P., and G. M. Griffin (1969) Distribution of silicate minerals in Florida Bay. 

Geology of the American Mediterranean. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc. Trans .. 19:505. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The dominantly 
carbonate sediments within Florida Bay contain small percentages of insoluble silicate 
minerals, ranging in our samples from 1.25 to 14.91% by weight. Quartz chlorite, and 
montmorillonite compose most of the silicate fraction, with very minor amounts of 
illite and kaolinite. Clay mineral distribution can be described by concentration 
gradients based on two end member assemblages: A chlorite assemblage dominates in 
the eastern part of the Bay, but declines westward. In a reciprocal manner, a 
montmorillonitic assemblage dominates the western bay and declines eastward. The two 
clay mineral assemblages reflect different sources-chlorite from the Atlantic 
province, and montmorillonite from the Gulf of Mexico province. Shallow and subaerial 
carbonate mud banks and intervening basins inhibit mixing of waters bearing the two 
clay assemblages; this has caused the relatively rapid transition from one clay suite to 
another in the 30-40 mile span of Florida Bay. The clay mineral fractions of similar 
ancient carbonate reef trends would be expected to show analogous concentration 
gradients in the back-reef area. 


1969 0 

Scholl, D. W., F. C. Craighead and M. Stuiver (1969) Florida submergence curve revised: 
Its relation to coastal sedimentation rates. Science . 163:562-4. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] New data substantiate as well as 
modify the south Florida submergence curve, which indicates that eustatic sea level has 
risen continuously, although at a generally decreasing rate, during the last 6500 to 
7000 sidereal yrs (5500 standard radiocarbon yrs) to reach its present position. 
Accumulation rates of coastal deposits are similar to the rate of sea-level rise, thus 
supporting the generalization that submergence rates largely determine as well as limit 
rates of coastal sedimentation in lagoonal and estuarine areas. 

1969, 1971 

Russel, R. J. (1971) Beaches and ground water of Cape Sable, Florida, during extreme 
drought. Tech. Rep. No 103. Coastal Studies Institute, Louisiana State University, Baton 
Rouge, LA. 18 pp. 


194 




In October 1969 beaches and water tables were investigated after 5 months of 
adequate rainfall in the Cape Sable complex. In April 1971 a similar study was made 
after 5 months of extreme drought in the Florida Everglades, when water tables were 
lowered and flattened enough to permit widespread saltwater intrusion. Much of the 
beach rock and cemented water-table rock under the beaches had been eroded by high- 
energy waves, probably of Hurricane Laurie (1969) or various local storms. Slabs of 
the eroded beach rock were tossed up on the beaches, and if sufficiently indurated, 
became incorporated into the deposits. No evidence of subsequent cementation was 
observed. On East and Northwest Capes the ground water had been replaced by stagnant 
seawater. On Middle Cape the water table was lowered, but a salinity gradient and 
some potable ground water were present in 1971. The Cape Sable region is isolated 
from mainland surface runoff by extensive areas of lakes and waterways with 
seawater salinities, and from subsurface flow of ground water by a thick section of 
compact marl and compressed peat. Accumulation of ground water depends on local 
rainfall, and its volume varies with size and permeability of catchment areas. The 
conclusions of this study are applicable to many other coastal areas and may be useful 
in assessing their population and survival potentialities. 

1969 - 1971 

Charlton, D. S. (1981) The characterization and evolution of carbonate tidal deltas, upper 

Florida Keys. Ph. D. Dissertation. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wl. 421 pp. 

South Florida was inundated by the last sea-level rise, initiating tidal exchange between 
Florida Bay and the open ocean at bedrock lows along the Florida Keys. Carbonate tidal 
deltas, composed of mangrove peat and carbonate sediments, formed during the last 
5000 yrs seaward and bayward of tidal channels at Snake Creek, Whale Harbor and 
Tavernier Creek. The carbonate tidal delta system at Snake Creek was the focus of this 
study. Six surface depositional zones of the Snake Creek bayside delta and their 
diagnostic elements recognized in cores, representing environmental gradients from 
most restricted circulation to more open marine conditions, are: (1) BLACK MANGROVE 
ZONE (Cerithidea scalariformis, dolomitic crusts); (2) RED MANGROVE ZONE (peat); (3) 
RESTRICTED POND ZONE ( Anomalocardia auberiana ); (4) OPEN MUD FLATS ZONE 
(Anomalocardia auberiana ); (5) TIDAL DELTA FRONT ZONE ( Turbo castaneus, Tegula 
fasciata, Porites)] and (6) FLORIDA BAY ZONE ( Codakia orbicularis, coarse molluscan 
packstone). Cutting across these zones is the (7) MAJOR CHANNELS ZONE. Snake Creek 
delta provides a microcosm of regional gradients from the Everglades, across Florida 
Bay, to Hawk Channel. This zonation and a similar approach for ocean-side tidal deltas 
were used to interpret Holocene cores along nine cross sections at Snake Creek, Whale 
Harbor and Tavernier Creek. Cores within the proximal bay-side tidal delta plain 
commonly show deepening-upward, transgressive, sequences (subaerial erosional 
surface -> basal peat -> marine carbonates with Thalassia) followed by a shallowing- 
upward, regressive, sequence (carbonates with Thalassia -> peat and red mangroves -> 
carbonates and black mangroves). Mangrove peats are present in proximal cores only. 
Distal bay-side delta cores, composed entirely of carbonates, show a deepening- 
upward, transgressive, sequence (subaerial erosional surface -> coarse basal marine 
carbonates) followed by a shallowing-upward, regressive, sequence (Florida Bay Zone 
-> Delta Front Zone -> Open Mud Flats Zone) representing progradation. Bay-side deltas 
differ from ocean-side deltas because of restricted circulation, greater turbidity and 
lower energy conditions. Ocean-side tidal deltas underwent transgression followed by 
regression. Distal ocean-side cores coarsen upward with decreases in Thalassia roots 
and increases in Porites and Goniolithon due to rising sea level, increasing energy, plus 
upward growth and progradation. Proximal ocean-side cores exhibit fining-upward 
sequences with upward increases in Thalassia roots as buildup and progradation cause 
progressive sheltering of the inner delta. Both bay-side and ocean-side tidal deltas 
record two-phase transgressive/regressive sequences similar to those interpreted for 


195 


Rodriguez Bank and described for Florida Bay islands. A decrease in the rate of sea 
level rise about 3000 BP probably caused local changes from transgression to 
regression. The presence of basal transgressive peat, common to all bay-side deltas 
and under Florida Bay islands, Hawk Channel banks and ocean-side deltas indicates its 
early burial history and permanence of overlying sediments. Four conceptual models of 
tidal delta genesis were developed that usefully: (1) describe the feedback of dominant 
tidal delta processes and parameters; (2) relate delta size changes to competition 
between the rates of sedimentation and sea level rise; (3) place Tavernier delta in an 
earlier stage and Matecumbe delta in a later stage of ontogenetic development, with 
Snake Creek and Whale Harbor in intermediate stages; and (4) extrapolate the 
sedimentary history from rising sea level to falling sea level. An index of restriction, 
FM/AC ratio, was formulated to compare grain constituents at Snake Creek to adjacent 
areas. It appears to have wide application for regional carbonate facies studies. It is 
calculated as: 


FM/AC = 


% Benthic foraminifera + % Mollusks 

% Algae + % Coral 


Using the data of Gindburg and others, regional FM/AC values varied from very low 
(< 0.4) for the outer Florida reef track, to very high (> 50) for Florida Bay, with 
intermediate FM/AC values between. 


1970 0 

Costello, T. J., D. M. Allen (1970) Synopsis of biological data on pink shrimp, Penaeus 
duorarum, Burkenroad, 1939. FAQ Fish. Rep. . 57(4):1499-537. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This citation is a species profile 
of the pink shrimp. It covers taxonomy, identification, life history, fisheries, 
ecological role, and environmental requirements. 

1970 - 1974 

McPherson, B. F., G. Y. Hendrix, H. Klein, and H. M. Tyus (1976) The environment of south 
Florida, a summary report. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 1011. 81 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This report 
summarizes the scientific information database collected on the south Florida 
environment as a result of a variety of governmental (NPS, USGS, EPA, BSF&W, 
NMFS, BOR, etc.) and private (University of Florida) studies undertaken during the 
early 1970's to determine the effects of a proposed international jetport on the 
ecosystem of the Everglades National Park. This report concludes phase one of the 
phase two project, South Florida Environmental Study, which described and identified 
the natural ecosystems of south Florida as they functioned before man began to have 
major impacts on these systems. The study also encompassed the agricultural and 
urban developments of south Florida and their impacts on the ecosystems. Topics 
covered as they pertain to the coastal and estuarine environments of the Park include: 
mangroves and salt marshes, shallow estuaries and bays, marine fisheries, water 
quality and pesticide effects. The authors conclude that by developing a thorough 
knowledge of the south Florida environmental system and the flow of energy through 
that system, planning and development can occur and permit full use and enjoyment of 
south Florida's natural resources without destroying those resources. 


1970 0 

Morelock, J. (1970) Consolidation of marine carbonate mud. Geol. Soc. Amer. Abs. . :861. 
[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] In this study, 34 
sediment samples from the Gulf of Mexico, Florida Bay, and the Bahama Banks were 


196 





analyzed to determine their consolidation characteristics. The results were similar to 
those found by testing noncarbonate silty clay. The carbonate sediments did not 
compact to as low a porosity as the noncarbonates which could be due to differences in 
particle shape and strength of the individual particle. Age and incipient cementation 
must play a part because the Holocene carbonate sediments did not show this 
characteristic. 


1970 0 

Rouse, W. (1970) Littoral Crustacea from southwest Florida. Quart. Jour. Fla. Aca. Sci. . 
32(2): 1 27-1 52. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This paper is an annotated 
checklist of decapods, stomatopods, and isopods collected in Florida Bay, the Ten 
Thousand Islands, Whitewater Bay, and Buttonwood Canal. 


1970 0 

Yokel, B. J. (1970) The relationship of the pink shrimp emigrating from the Everglades 
National Park to commercial catches on the Grounds. Proc, Gulf and Caribb. Fish. Inst. . 
22:65. 

[NO COPY OF THE PAPER AVAILABLE.] 

1970 - 1982 

Mazzotti, F. J. (1989) Factors affecting nesting success of the American crocodile, 
Crocodylus acutus, in Florida Bay. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44:220-28. 

Approximately two-thirds of the nests of the American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) 
in Florida occur in Everglades National Park along sandy shorelines and marl creek 
banks, in northeastern Florida Bay. Seventy-four percent of 104 crocodile nests 
examined between 1970 and 1982 produced at least one hatchling. Fifty-eight percent 
of eggs in such successful nests hatched, while 43% of all eggs laid produced 
hatchlings. Egg mortality was caused by predation (13% of 104 nests), and embryonic 
mortality (13% of 104 nests), resulting from flooding and desiccation. Nest 
temperatures apparently did not kill developing embryos, but deformed hatchlings were 
observed from hot (>36.5°C) nests. Disturbance to nesting females may result In 
abandonment of nests during incubation and relocation of nesting effort in subsequent 
years. The timing of nesting seems to be rigidly scheduled, with the developmental 
period bracketed by desiccating and flooding conditions, and periods of low and high 
temperatures. The success of this strategy is shown by the relatively low rate of nest 
failure in most years. 

1971 0 

Ginsburg, R. N. (1971) Landward movement of carbonate mud: a new model for regressive 
cycles in carbonates. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. . 55:340. (Abs.). 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] The Florida Bay 
lagoon and the tidal flats of the Bahamas and the Persian Gulf are traps for fine 
sediments produced on the large adjacent open platforms or shelves. The extensive 
source areas produce carbonate mud by precipitation and by the disintegration of 
organic skeletons. The carbonate mud moves shoreward by wind-driven, tidal or 
estuarine-like circulation, and deposition is accelerated and stabilized by marine plants 
and animals. Because the open marine source areas are many times larger than the 
nearshore traps, seaward progression of the wedge of sediments is inevitable. As the 
shoreline progrades seaward, the size of the open marine source area decreases, 
eventually reduced progradation of mud no longer exceeds slow continuous subsidence 
and a new transgression begins. When the source area expands so that production again 


197 






exceeds subsidence a new regressive cycle starts. These results suggested by the 
model should be observable in ancient deposits. 


1971 0 

Given, P. H. (1971) Distribution of forms of sulfur in peats from saline environments in the 

Florida Everglades. Geol. Soc. Amer. Abstr. . 3:580. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.) Peat deposits 
influenced by marine waters have higher pyrite and organic sulfur contents compared 
with freshwater deposits. The principal source of sulfur in saline conditions is the 
sulfate ion. As a first step in seeking to understand the sequence of changes by which 
sulfate is converted to the various other sulfur forms, a peat core in a mangrove 
swamp environment in the Florida Everglades has been analyzed at various depths for 
H 2 S, acid-soluble sulfides, pyrite, elementary sulfur, organic sulfur and sulfate ion. 
Measurements at two depths have been made in a second core where conditions are 
brackish for part of the year. Concentrations tend to fluctuate with depth rather than 
show progressive trends. Ferrous sulfide, the presumed precursor of pyrite, is very 
low at all levels. Free sulfur, perhaps involved in the formation of pyrite, is found, 
though at rather low concentrations. It is difficult to see any other means of production 
of reduced forms of sulfur than the activities of sulfate-reducing bacteria. Yet Eh 
values, measured in situ with a pyrolytic graphite electrode, are in the range (100- 
450 mv), commonly described as ’oxidizing." Clearly the oxidizable and reducible 
species in peat do not constitute an equilibrium system, the rate of reaction being slow. 


1971 

Harriss, R. C., H. Mattraw, G. J. Horvath, and A. Andren (1971) Input, cycling, and fate of 
heavy metal and pesticides pollutants in estuaries of the western Everglades. Final Rep. to 
the National Park Service from the Marine Laboratory, Florida State University, 
Tallahassee, FL. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This report 
contains the results of the first phase of an investigation of the sources, dispersion 
mechanisms, and ecological impact of heavy metals and chlorinated hydrocarbon 
pesticides on the estuaries of the western section of Everglades National Park. The 
most important findings of the study are: (1) Agricultural activities located north of 
the park are a source of heavy metals and chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides to the 
Park estuaries. Heavy applications of chemicals for plant nutrition and pest control 
have produced soils with average Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, and Pb concentrations up to six times 
greater than presently uncontaminated estuarine soils and sediments; (2) The measured 
gradients for Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, and lead suggest that migration of these metals into the 
estuarine environment is occurring; (3) Suspended sediments from drainage canals 
contain the highest Cu, Ni, Zn, and Cd values measured; (4) The cation exchange 
capacity of the soils and sediments studied increases with increasing organic content; 
and (5) Concentrations of mercury up to 1.8 pg/g have been measured in sediments 
with no likely source of artificial contamination. A very strong correlation was found 
between cation exchange capacity and Hg content in the sediments. 


1971 0 

Manker, J. P., and G. M. Griffin (1971) Source and mixing of insoluble clay minerals in a 
shallow water carbonate environment - Florida Bay. J. Sediment. Petrol. . 41(1):302-6. 
[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.) Chlorite and smectite dominate 
the clay-size insoluble residue of Recent carbonate sediments of Florida Bay illite and 
kaolinite also occur in very small quantities. Chlorite is derived from the Atlantic Coast 
and eastern Everglades provinces and is introduced by stream and by tidal channels 
through the northern Florida Keys. Smectite is derived from the Gulf of Mexico 


198 




province to the west. In the northern part of Florida Bay, water flow is greatly 
impeded by a complex bank and base system, and the clay mineral suites remain 
relatively segregated near their respective sources. However, in the southern part of 
the Bay, banks are less frequent, water flow is less impeded, and the clay mineral 
suites mix gradually across the area. 


1971 0 

Slack, J. F., and R. S. Sites (1971) Analytical study of Caribbean carbonate sediments. The 
Compass . 49(1):9-24. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Carbonate sediments, 
representing various depositional environments from the Florida Coast, Keys, and Bay 
area, were analyzed by x-ray, infrared, and atomic absorption methods. Aragonite and 
high-magnesium calcite were found to be the dominant minerals formed in shallow 
water environments, whereas calcite was the predominant mineral phase in deep sea 
carbonate sediments. Spectrochemical analyses for Sr and Pb, at the trace element 
level, tended to reflect the amount of aragonite present. With an increase of aragonite, 
there was an increase of Sr +2 and Pb +2 , and also an increase in the pH of the 
environment. An infrared method, based upon frequency change with changing 
composition, is correlated with the standard x-ray diffraction procedure for the 
determination of the Ca/Mg ratio within sample of 'protodolomite.' 

1971 - 1972 

Collins, L A., and J. H. Finucane (1984) Ichthyoplankton survey of the estuarine and inshore 
waters of the Florida Everglades May 1971 to February 1972. NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 6. 
PB84-235829. NOAA/NMFS, Panama City, FL. 76 pp. 

Quarterly ichthyoplankton sampling was conducted at 16 estuarine and 24 inshore 
stations along the Florida Everglades from May 1971 to February 1972. The area is one 
of the most pristine along the Florida coast. The survey provided the first 
comprehensive information on seasonal occurrence, abundance (under 10 m 2 of surface 
area) and distribution of fish eggs and larvae in the area. A total of 209,462 fish eggs 
and 78,865 larvae was collected. Eggs were identified only as fish eggs, but among the 
larvae, 37 families, 47 genera, and 37 species were identified. Abundance of eggs and 
larvae, and diversity of larvae, were greatest in the inshore zone. The 10 most 
abundant fish families which together made up 90.7% of all larvae from the study area 
were in descending order of abundance: Clupeidae, Engraulidae, Gobiidae, Sciaenidae, 
Carangidae, Pomadasyidae, Cynoglossidae, Gerreidae, Triglidae, and Soleidae. 
Clupeidae, Engraulidae, and Gobiidae made up 59.9% of all larvae. The inshore zone (to 
a depth of about 10 m) was a spawning ground and nursery for many fishes important 
to fisheries. The catch of small larvae (<. 3.5 mm SL) indicated that most fishes 
identified from the 10 most abundant families spawned throughout the inshore zone at 
depths of 10 m, but Orthopristis chrysoptera , Gerreidae, and Prionotus spp. spawned 
at depths of 10 m, with offshore to inshore (eastward) larval transport. Salinity was 
one of several environmental factors that probably limited the numbers of eggs and 
larvae in the estuarine zone. Abundance of eggs and larvae at inshore stations was 
usually as great as, and sometimes greater than, the abundance of eggs and larvae at 
offshore stations due west of the Everglades. 

1971 - 1972 

Lindall, W. N., J. R. Hall, W. A. Fable, and L. A. Collins (1974) Fishes and commercial 
invertebrates of the nearshore and estuarine zone between Cape Romano and Cape Sable, 
Florida. NTIS PB235-215. NTIS, Washington, DC. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This study was 
designed to acquire baseline data on fishes and commercial invertebrates inhabitating 


199 




the estuarine and nearshore waters between Cape Romano and Cape Sable. An annotated 
list of fishes with environmental data where each species was collected is provided. 
Results show that nearly 32,000 finfishes representing 114 species were collected, 
quarterly, between May 1971 and February 1972. The most abundant species, in 
decreasing order of abundance, were the striped anchovy, Anchoa hepsetus ; bay 
anchovy, Anchoa mitchillr, silver jenny, Eucinostomus gula\ fantail mullet, Mugil 
trichodon ; and pinfish, Lagodon rhomboides. Of the six species of commercial 
invertebrates collected, pink shrimp, Penaeus duorarum, comprised nearly 91% of the 
total numbers of individuals taken (2,600). The number of organisms offshore 
increased with proximity to the shoreline. Generalized locations of isohalines for each 
quarter are also provided. 

1971 - 1973 

Grady, W. C. (1978) Sediments of Florida Bay near Islamorada, Florida. M. S. Thesis. West 

Virginia University, Morgantown, WV. 242 pp. 

It is the purpose of this study to examine the sediments of the Florida Bay region, and 
to relate them to modern sedimentary environments with the aim of forming analogies 
to ancient environments of carbonate deposition. The study area may be subdivided into 
regions on the basis of biota, hydrologic factors such as water depth or current 
velocity, sediment size and sediment constituents. Petrographic study of the 
constituents in the sand and gravel size fractions allowed sediment facies to be 
ascertained for each fraction based on constituent composition. These facies were 
closely tied to variations in size, sorting, and skewness of the sediments. Q-mode 
factor analysis was employed to determine the facies of the sand and gravel size 
fractions, and the entire sediment. Three facies of the entire sediment resulted: (1) 
sediments of the muddy regions of Florida Bay, (2) sediments of the back reef, and (3) 
lag deposit sediments of the bay. Sediments of the study area consist predominantly of 
peloids of unknown origin, mollusk fragments, Halimeda fragments, and foraminifera. 
Quartz, which is found in most Bay sediments, originates in the underlying Pleistocene 
bedrock. Nearly one half of the skeletal grains in the study area are micritized, though 
only slightly. Also, an inverse relationship was recognized between mud content of the 
sediment and the amount of micritization of the grains. The bedrock surface beneath the 
recent sediments is a karst surface superimposed on a drainage pattern topography. 
This surface has no single control on the location of sediment build-up since its flooding. 
Sediments retrieved from 27 cores on the mangrove islands and shoals of the study 
area reveal eleven different sediment types within these islands and shoals. Cross 
sections based on these cores show that each island has had a history independent of 
each other island, and that sea level rise has been more-or-less continuous for the last 
3300 yrs. Crane and East Keys, because of their proximity, developed into similar 
mangrove islands, but had vastly differing histories. Crane Key has always existed 
where it is now located since the initial flooding of the Bay. It first formed as a 
mangrove swamp, depositing peat, but as sea level rose, it developed into the 
mangrove island of today. East Key began as a sand shoal, which developed into a 
mangrove island. Cotton Key developed on the lake floor from sediments carried 
through Whale Harbor channel during storms. The portion of Shell Key studied initiated 
as sediments accumulating within a sinkhole. These sediments allowed the growth of 
mangroves, which have since formed the island. Shoal '78A* was initially a mud bank, 
but developed into a sand shoal midway through its history. The same appears to have 
happened to shoal '84'. Sampling took place from 1971 to 1973. 

1971 - 1973 

Ogden, J. C., W. B. Robertson, G. E. Davis and T. W. Schmidt. (1974) Pesticides, 

polychlorinated biphenyls and heavy metals in upper food chain levels, Everglades National 

Park and vicinity. NTIS Rep. No. Dl SFEP-74-16. 27 pp. 


200 


A general concern over possible environmental pollution in southern Florida by man¬ 
made poisons prompted this extensive survey of chlorinated insecticides, 
polychlorinated biphenyls, and metals in upper trophic level samples. The resulting 
analyses provide a baseline for future analyses, and clues for particular poisons or 
particular species in need of more study. These data revealed that DDT, DDE, DDD, 
dieldrin, and PCBs appear to exist in concentrations well below amounts known to have 
either acute or chronic effects on local species. Less is known of the significance of the 
various metal concentrations reported here, although levels of Hg in fresh water 
vertebrates, and As in marine species are great enough to deserve more intensive 
study. Collections were made between 1971 and 1973. The samples were eggs, and/or 
tissue of ospreys, pelicans, common egrets, white ibis, cormorants, sooty terns, 
cattle egrets, red shouldered hawk, alligators, crocodiles, pinfish, stone crabs, sea 
catfish, crevalle jacks, silver mullet, spiny lobsters, gray snappers, pink shrimp, blue 
crabs, bluegills, Florida gar, largemouth bass, leopard frogs, mosquito fish, and 
crayfish collected in Florida Bay or the Everglades. The samples were analyzed for DDT 
and metabolites, dieldrin, As, Hg, Cd, Zn, Pb, and Cu. 


1972 

Davies, T. D. (1980) Peat formation in Florida Bay and its significance in interpreting the 

Recent vegetational and geological history of the Bay area. Ph. D. Dissertation. 

Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA. 338 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING PRIOR TO 1980 BUT UNKNOWN.] Florida Bay, a large shallow 
water embayment, occupies approximately 600 square miles between the South Florida 
mainland and the coralline Florida Keys. Bay sediments developed on the surface of the 
gently sloping (0.3 ft mi' 1 ) Pleistocene Miami Formation. The Miami Formation beneath 
the Bay is a karst limestone similar to that exposed in many areas of the Everglades to 
the north. Sediments covering the Bay floor are composed almost entirely of calcareous 
mud with occasional occurrences of peat. These sediments are young when compared to 
the 100,000-yr-old Miami limestone bedrock. Radiocarbon dates of basal peats indicate 
that peat accumulation began in south and southwestern sectors of the Bay about 5,500 
radiocarbon yrs ago. Paleobotanical evidence from buried peats reveals that flora once 
occupying the Bay area was significantly different from today's. It was similar to flora 
presently growing on the mainland to the north in the freshwater Everglades. The 
purpose of the research was to develop an understanding of early vegetational and 
geological history of Florida Bay, and to relate the history of the Bay to the 
development and/or destruction of the South Florida coastline. There were five 
integrated parts: (1) determination of lateral and vertical extent or peat in Florida 
Bay; (2) determination of peat types contained in Bay sediments; (3) interpretation or 
environments responsible for formation of the various peat types encountered; (4) 
establishment of modes of occurrence of sulfur in peat sediments; and (5) 
interpretation or role peat sediment plays in island formation. Initial data were 
gathered at 547 grid sampling stations and 74 additional sites. Peat was found more 
widespread over the Bay than previously recorded. Sediment isopach and bedrock 
contour maps were produced. At 15 sites, 22 3-in piston cores were obtained 
representing the full thickness of peat present at each site. Peat and carbonate samples 
were processed for analyses of peat constituents and pollen stratigraphy. Peat thin 
sections were prepared at 3-in intervals. Environments of deposition were determined. 
Some important conclusions resulting from this study are the following. Autochthonous 
peat is more widespread over the Bay than previously recorded. Peat commonly occurs 
as basal sediment beneath numerous islands and banks, but is absent in open basin 
areas. Erosion of the peat “body" has played a role in the geomorphology of the Bay. 
Peat sedimentation began at least 5,500 radiocarbon yrs ago in south and southwestern 
parts of the Bay where the bottom of the Bay is lowest in elevation. Petrographic and 
palynologic data indicate freshwater marsh and swamp vegetation grew in the area in 


201 


the past. Florida Bay peats are chiefly root peats and contain only minor amounts of 
stem wood. Thirteen peat types are identified from the Bay including three marine, two 
brackish, and eight freshwater types. Many of these peats are indistinguishable from 
peats from the mainland Florida. A concept of 'secondary* peat types is presented for 
peats extensively intruded from above by roots of plants growing in differing overlying 
environments. Freshwater marsh peats are more fine-grained than the fibrous, rocky, 
marine peats present in the Bay. Charcoal is consistently more abundant in freshwater, 
marsh peat types, especially those comprised chiefly of Mariscus jamaicensis and 
Acrostichum spp. remains, than in brackish and marine swamp peats. Foraminiferal 
remains are common in many marine peats. Siliceous sponge spicules are present only 
in the younger marine sediments. Microscopically identifiable plant fragments, 
palynomorphs, charcoal, sponge spicules, foraminiferal remains, and radiolaria are 
useful in paleoenvironmental reconstruction. The sedimentary record of peat in Florida 
Bay is a cycle consisting of a clearly defined transgressive sequence. The cycle 
beginning at the base includes: (a) freshwater carbonate mud; (b) freshwater marsh 
and swamp peat; (c) brackish water peat; and (d) marine peat. The cycle is not always 
complete, but the sequence is always the same. 


1972 0 

Friedmann, E. I., W. C. Roth, J. B. Turner, and R. S. McEwen (1972) Calcium oxalate 
crystals in the aragonite-producing green alga Penicillus and related genera. Science . 
1 77(4052):891 -3. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Calcium oxalate crystals occur in 
the marine green algae Penicillus, Rhipocephalus, and Udotea, known as producers of 
sedimentary aragonite needles. In contrast to the externally deposited aragonite 
crystals which are generally < 15 nm long, the oxalate crystals are larger (up to 150 
^im) and are located in the vacuolar system of the plant. No calcium oxalate was found 
in the related but noncalcifying genera Avrainvillea and Cladocephalus. Algae specimens 
were collected in Florida Bay. 


1972 0 

Gebelein, C. (1972) Sedimentology and ecology of a Recent carbonate facies mosaic, Cape 

Sable, Florida. Ph. D. Dissertation. Brown University, Providence, Rl. 237 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] A study of the 
sedimentary processes encountered in the recent, shallow marine intertidal carbonate 
deposits in and around Lake Ingrahm, Cape Sable was conducted to describe the nature 
of facies changes, sedimentation products, and organism - sediment interactions. The 
following sedimentary environments were described: mud flats, subtidal muds, 
mangrove flats, marl prairies, and inland lagoons including zonational characteristics, 
organism abundance and diversity, sedimentation rates and mechanics. A total 
sedimentation budget was estimated by comparing recent marine deposits accumulated 
since the opening of the canals in 1922 which drastically changed sedimentation style 
from fresh-brackish water conditions to a fully marine complex. A lack of diagenesis in 
Lake Ingrahm was explained by the youthfulness of deposits found at Cape Sable. Cape 
Sable deposits were compared with recent tidal flats in the Bahamas, Persian Gulf, and 
ancient tidal flat sediments. [Also published as Dynamics of recent carbonate 
sedimentation and ecology - Cape Sable. Florida (1977), Inter. Sed. Petro. Ser., Leiden 
& Brill., Vol. 16., 115 pp.] 


1972 0 

Ginsburg, R. N. (ed.). (1972) South Florida carbonate sediments. Sedimenta II. Comparative 
Sedimentology Laboratory, University of Miami, Fisher Island Station, Miami Beach, FL. 72 
PP- 


202 





[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This citation is a field guide to 
the geology of South Florida and covers Florida Bay and the Reef Tract. Subjects 
discussed include water circulation, molluscan fauna, isotope record of circulation 
gradients and texture and composition of sediments. This is a reprint of the Guidebook 
for Field Trip 1, Geological Society of America (1964). 


1972 0 

Hughes, D. A. (1972) On the endogenous control of tide-associated displacements of pink 

shrimp, Penaeus duorarum Burkenroad. Biol. Bull.. 142:271-80. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING NOT AVAILABLE.] Swimming of both postlarval and juvenile pink 
shrimp was recorded in current chambers in the laboratory for three days following 
collection from Buttonwood Canal. In the apparent absence of environmental cues the 
animals maintained various forms of phase relationship with the tidal and diurnal 
cycles. Postlarvae manifested a pattern of swimming, markedly in phase with the 
semi-diurnal tide cycle. Upstream swimming took place during flood tides and 
downstream swimming during ebb tides. No circadian periodicity was found and the 
confining of their activity in nature to night-time is considered a direct response to 
prevailing light intensity. The patterns of swimming evidenced by juveniles differ 
depending, apparently, on some as yet undetermined aspect of the tide cycle to which 
they are exposed prior to collection. Individuals collected at times of new and full 
moon, when ebb tides occur early in the evening, exhibit a different pattern of 
swimming from those of individuals collected at times of quarter moons when ebb tides 
occur late at night. The patterns obtained are clearly endogenous although their 
adaptive phasing with the tidal and diurnal cycles is not always evident. 


1972 0 

Kerr, S. D. (1972) Patterns of coastal sedimentation: carbonate muds of Florida Bay. Am. 

Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. . 56(3):632. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Muddy 
carbonate sediments of Florida Bay have accumulated in response to hydraulic process 
characteristic of coastal environments. These processes are reflected in faunal 
distribution as well as physiography of the accumulations. The frequently encountered 
coastal sedimentary pattern of ‘banks,’ ’lakes," and mainland veneer is expanded 
laterally in Florida Bay because of topography of the underlying Pleistocene rock 
surface. In Florida Bay the dominant physiographic pattern consists of circular "lakes" 
of deeper water surrounded by curvilinear banks and islands. The banks, composed 
predominantly of mud sediment, reach within a foot or so of mean sea level and are 
largest in the western bay nearest the open Gulf of Mexico. The northeastern or 
"interior" segment of the Bay is characterized by narrower banks, in many places 
exposed subaerially as islands. Spitlike accretion is apparent from growth lines on 
islands and some banks. This indicates locally directed currents; however, overall 
randomness of orientation and circular patterns of sediment distribution suggest that 
significant currents develop in all directions. The larger submerged banks of the 
"outer" Bay display prominent accretion lines and are in addition elaborately channeled. 
The channeling follows a distinctive cycle of establishment and decline that seems 
closely related to bank growth. Current control of deposition of muddy sediments is 
reflected also in the ancient sedimentary record, notably the Pennsylvanian Virgil 
"mounds" near Alamogordo, NM, and Pennsylvanian Lansing "mounds" in southeastern 
Kansas. Sediment-baffle processes previously proposed for the construction of mound- 
topography appear unneeded in as much as current processes may achieve similar 
results. 


203 





1972 

Lindberg, E., and C. Harris (1974) Mercury enrichment in estuarine plant detritus. Mar, 

PollUt. Bull,, 5/6:93-5. 

Relative Hg concentrations were enriched by a factor of 10 in decomposition products 
of the red mangrove, Rhizophora mangle, compared with living plant tissue. The Hg 
content of mangrove detritus is 3 to 30 times higher than values reported for marine 
phytoplankton. Detritus formation represents a natural mechanism for Hg enrichment in 
estuarine food chains. Sampling for this study took place in 1972. 


1972 0 

McCallum, J. S., and K. W. Stockman (1972) Water Circulation. Sedimenta II. South Florida 
Carbonate Sediments . R. N. Ginsburg (ed.) Univ. of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and 
Atmospheric Science, Miami, FL. 11-4. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This paper 
provides a summary review of the restricted exchange of water in Florida Bay based 
on topography and the effect of variations in rainfall on Florida Bay salinity and water 
levels. A north-south gradient in salinity was found in Florida Bay as a result of runoff 
produced by mainland and Bay water levels, and by the excess of rainfall over 
evaporation. The authors suggest that the general salinity level of northern Florida Bay 
has fluctuated from brackish to hypersaline in a period of 5 to 7 years. Hydrographic 
zones of Florida Bay are presented. 


1972 0 

McNulty, J. K., W. N. Lindall, and J. E. Sykes (1972) Cooperative Gulf of Mexico estuarine 
inventory and study, Florida: Phase I, Area Description. NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS. Circ-368. 
NOAA/NMFS, Seattle, WA. 126 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Newly-developed tables and maps 
depict the dimensions, submerged vegetation, tidal marshes, mangrove swamps, 
commercial oyster beds, leased oyster-rearing areas, sources of pollution, drained 
tidal marshes, and filled areas of Florida's west coast estuaries. Published and 
unpublished information on temperature, salinity, geology, artificial fishing reefs, 
stream discharge, human population, commercial fishing, and economic development is 
presented in new form. If the total area of estuaries (3,003,312 acres = 1,215,440 
ha) is considered to be the area of open water (2,081,525 acres = 842,393 ha) plus 
the area of mangrove swamps (393,160 acres = 159,112 ha) and tidal marshes 
(528,528 acres = 213,895 ha), then roughly one-half of the total area of estuaries is 
unvegetated; the remaining half is about equally divided among mangroves, tidal 
marshes, and submerged vegetation. Human population in coastal counties increased 
from 614,616 persons in 1930 to 3,320,226 persons in 1970, resulting in adverse 
effects from pollution to 43% of estuarine areas, filling of 23,521 acres (9,519 ha) 
mainly for residential and industrial development, and draining of 26,676 acres 
(10,796 ha) of tidal marshes for mosquito control. Increasing population correlates 
directly with the number of sources of pollution, filled area, and the area closed to 
shellfishing by public health authorities; thus, failure to control the adverse effects of 
population growth will clearly result in continued rapid degradation of estuarine habitat 
on Florida's west coast. This document includes coverage of Florida Bay. 

1972 

Odell, D. K., E. D. Asper, J. Baucom and L. H. Cornell (1980) A recurrent mass stranding of 
the false killer whale, Pseudorca crassidens, in Florida. Fish. Bull. US. 78:171-77. 

The false killer whale, Pseudorca crassidens, is one of the several species of 
odontocetes known primarily through its relatively frequent mass strandings. These 
strandings offer a large amount of natural history data but, in most cases, 


204 







investigators have been unable, for various reasons to thoroughly study these events. 
The series P. crassidens mass strandings described is the third in Florida in recent 
years and occurred outside Florida Bay. An unreported stranding occurred on July 
1972 on the northeast end of Sawyer Key in Florida Bay is briefly mentioned in the 
paper. Nineteen animals were involved. 


1972 0 

Perkins, R. D., M. D. McKenzie, and P. L. Blackwelder (1972) Aragonite crystals within 
codiacean algae: distinctive morphology and sedimentary implications. Science . 
175(4022):624-26. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Morphologic studies of single 
crystals of aragonite within Codiacean algae reveal characteristic crystal forms 
produced by two distinctly different modes of calcification. Diagnostic serrated 
crystals (1 urn in length) of aragonite originating within the extracellular sheaths of 
capitular filaments are incorporated into modern lime sediments and may serve as 
effective tracers for particles of algal origin. Intercellular calcification within 
Penicillus dumetosus, previously unreported, is represented by doubly terminated 
aragonite crystals ranging in size from 48 to 160 jim. Specimens for this study were 
collected in Florida Bay. 

1972, 1987, 1989 

Thompson, M. J., and M. B. Robblee (1989) Remote monitoring of seagrass die off in Florida 
Bay, Everglades National Park, Florida. Abs., 10th Biennial Estuarine Research Conf., 
Baltimore, MD. 82. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] 
Extensive dying of seagrasses within climax Thalassia testudinum seagrass beds was 
first reported from Florida Bay, in the fall of 1987. Dying of seagrass beds in that area 
has continued and the phenomena appears to be spreading beyond the confines of Florida 
Bay. Aerial imagery from 1972, 1987, and 1989, and SPOT satellite imagery from 
1987 through 1989 has been used to map the extent and the rate of spread of seagrass 
destruction. Remotely monitored signatures indicative of die-off are identified and 
possibilities for future, larger scale remote monitoring are discussed. 


1973 0 

Andren, A. W. (1973) The geochemistry of mercury in three estuaries from the Gulf of 

Mexico. Ph. D. Dissertation. Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL. 140 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The distribution of Hg in three 
Gulf of Mexico estuaries of varying physical characteristics has been observed. In the 
Mississippi River approximately 100 kg Hg settles in the three main tributaries 
annually while 1.24 x 10 5 kg Hg reaches the Gulf, 78% in suspended form and 22% in 
dissolved form. In Mobile Bay 4.5 x 10 3 kg Hg settles in the estuary while 4.8 x 10 3 kg 
Hg enters the Gulf, 58% on suspended matter and 42% in dissolved form. This data 
indicates that estuaries with high sedimentation rates serve as efficient traps for 
mercury laden sediments. The Hg budget for the Everglades was not calculated but this 
area was utilized to illustrate that high levels of Hg can be encountered despite the fact 
that no Hg discharge sources are present in its vicinity. In order to study the nature of 
dissolved Hg the dissolved organic matter in the Mississippi River and the Everglades 
was fractionated into six different molecular weight ranges and Hg determined in each 
fraction. Data reveals that in the Mississippi River approximately 90% of both 
dissolved Hg and dissolved organic carbon are associated with the <500 molecular 
weight fraction. Identical measurements in the Everglades reveal that up to 40% of 
both dissolved Hg and dissolved organic matter exist in the >500 molecular weight 
fraction. Additional evidence strongly suggests that Hg is strongly associated with the 


205 



dissolved organic matter in the <500 molecular weight fraction. If dissolved methyl Hg 
exists measurements indicate that its concentration is less than 1 ng L* 1 . Between 60- 
80% of methyl Hg in water is associated with the particulate phase, the highest 
association occurring in the Mississippi River and the lowest in the Everglades. This 
relatively constant phase separation indicates that suspended particulate matter is 
very important in determining the low dissolved Hg concentrations. If any adsorption- 
desorption effects of Hg exist at the zone of salt water mixing they are effectively 
masked by dilution phenomena. Alkyl Hg concentrations in sediments constitute only 
about 0.04% of the total Hg present. The observed organic matter-mercury 
associations are rather of the humic and fulvic type. The chelating ability of these 
organic materials are mainly due to their carboxyl content, which increases with 
decreasing molecular weight. Laboratory experiments show in addition that the fulvic 
acid-mercury association is only partially reversible as higher salinity water is 
reached, indicating that a very strong complex is formed. Measurements of Hg in 
interstitial waters presumably of anoxic character show that this element does not 
become immobilized by the formation of insoluble sulfides. Theoretical considerations 
show that this observation can be explained by the formation of soluble polysulfide 
species as well as by organic matter-mercury complexes. 


1973 

Brook, I. M. (1978) Comparative macrofaunal abundance in turtlegrass (Thalassia 
testudinum) communities in South Florida characterized by high blade density. Bull. Mar. 
Sci. . 28(1 ):212-17. 

Five Thalassia communities with high blade density (-3,000 blades rrf 2 ) were sampled 
by suction dredge in April 1973. Four sites were in south Biscayne Bay, and one was at 
Murray Key in the Everglades National Park on the southwest coast of Florida. 
Macrofaunal abundance ranged from 292 to 10,728 individuals nr 2 . It is postulated that 
a high standing crop of seagrass may not be the primary determining factor in faunal 
abundance. 


1973 0 

Caldwell, D. K., and M. C. Caldwell (1973) Marine mammals of the eastern Gulf of Mexico. 

A Summary of Knowledge of the Eastern Gulf of Mexico: 1973. J. I. Jones, M. E. Ring, M. O. 

Rinkel, and R. E. Smith (eds.). State University System of Florida, Florida Institute of 

Technoloy, Melbourne, FL. III-I-1 - 23. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Positive records of marine 
mammals from the eastern Gulf of Mexico are listed with annotations, and maps are 
included to show the location of the records. The species listed in Florida Bay and 
Florida Keys are Balaenoptera acutorostrata (Minke whale), Globicephala macrorhyncha 
(short-finned pilot whale), Physeter catadon (sperm whale), Trichechus manatus 
latirostris (manatee), Tursiops truncatus (bottlenose dolphin), and Ziphius cavirostris 
(Cuvier's beaked whale). It is not possible to determine in the maps whether records 
for the Florida Keys are for the Bay or ocean side of the reef track. 


1973 0 

Carballo, J. D. (1985) Holocene dolomitization of supratidal sediments, Sugarloaf Key, 
Florida. M. S. Thesis. University of Texas, Austin, TX. 130 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE.] 


1973 0 

Chase, T. L. (1973) The variation in growth habits and ecology of the stony corals from Don 
Quixote Bank, Florida Bay. M. S. Thesis, University of Michigan, 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE.] 


206 




1973 0 

Craighead, F. C. (1973) The effects of natural forces on the development and maintenance 
of the Everglades, Florida. Research Reports - National Geographic Society, 1966:49-66. 
[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The author first visited the 
Florida Everglades in 1917 in connection with a study of Paradise Key made under the 
auspices of the Smithsonian Institution. At that time he visited Lake Okeechobee and 
boated down the Caloosahatchee River to Fort Myers. Although the destruction of native 
vegetation was even then well under way, much was still preserved and made a lasting 
impression that motivated him to return to Homestead on his retirement in 1949. His 
work with the US Department of Agriculture from 1911 to 1949 frequently brought 
him into the forests of the state and increased his interests in its ecological problems. 
Since 1953, he collaborated with the Everglades National Park, and from 1961 the Park 
contributed to the expenses pertaining to these studies. In 1966 a research grant from 
the National Geographic Society allowed him to continue and expand the studies of this 
ecologically critical region. Preliminary studies have shown that natural forces, such 
as the rising sea, recent sedimentation (5,000 yrs or less), hurricanes, changing 
water levels, drought and resulting fires, and even the alligator can have catastrophic 
effects on the life and death of plant communities in south Florida and can profoundly 
affect the wildlife. Several investigators during the past four decades have called 
attention to the worsening conditions in the natural environments of south Florida. The 
present studies have attempted to throw more light on the natural processes of change, 
to point out their intensification by man, and to offer suggestions toward better 
management of this complex environment. 

1973 0 

Roberts, A. A., J. G. Palacas and I. C. Frost (1973) Determination of organic carbon in 
modern carbonate sediments. J. Sed. Petrol. . 43(4): 1157-9. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] In the routine 
analysis for organic carbon in modern unconsolidated sediments the initial step 
commonly is to remove the carbonate carbon by acid treatment and to analyze directly 
the organic carbon in the residue. As much as 44% of the organic carbon in modern 
carbonate sediments from Florida Bay is solubilized and lost during the acid treatment. 
Therefore, the amount of carbon in these, and in similar modern sediments, must also 
be included in the analysis for an accurate determination of the percentage of total 
organic carbon in the sample. 


1973 0 

Jones, J. I., R. E. Ring, M. O. Rinkel, and R. E. Smith (eds.) (1973) A summary of knowledge 
of the eastern Gulf of Mexico. State University System of Florida, Institute of 
Oceanography (SUSIO), Gainesville, FL. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This report 
represents a compilation and evaluation of selected studies of the significant natural 
and artificial environmental characteristics of the eastern Gulf of Mexico and provides 
an overview of the current status of knowledge and information on past and on-going 
studies which are significant for a more complete understanding of the environment and 
ecology of the area. An extensive geological literature has been developed in this region 
since it is one of the major petroleum producing regions of the world and since a 
number of major commercial fisheries are located in this region there is an extensive 
literature regarding this aspect as well. Some of the more general statements made on 
the major topics addressed in this report are briefly summarized as follows: the 
climate of the report area is characterized by a subtropical high-pressure belt, with 
the period from March to September characterized by a clockwise atmospheric 


207 



circulation pattern; wind and waves respond to seasonal changes in circulation 
patterns. Effects of hurricanes, tropical storms, and winter cold fronts are also 
discussed. Sections discussed as they pertain to the Everglades region include 
extensive chemical data on nearshore and estuarine waters including water quality, 
nutrients, minor elements and their hydrology are presented. A discussion of the 
biological environment is presented relative to both the environment and organism 
including salt marshes, mangroves, seagrass beds, plankton, major benthic 
invertebrate groups, fishes, marine mammals and birds. The Ten Thousand Islands - 
Florida Bay area is considered as one of the most complex coastal areas in the United 
States. 


1973 0 

University of Georgia Marine Institute and The Skidaway Institute of Oceanography (1973) 
The geological inventory of Cumberland Island, Everglades National Park, Gulf Islands 
National Seashores, and Biscayne National Monument. Final Rep. to the NPS. Contr. CX001- 
3-0052. National Park Service, Washington, DC. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] All available information and data 
concerning geology, geological history and development, and geological processes of the 
subject areas were gathered, evaluated and reduced, whenever possible, to a format 
appropriate for computer storage and retrieval. The information and data topics 
included ground water, tides, currents, waves, hydrography, shoreline erosion and 
accretion, and shallow water structure and stratography. An annotated bibliography 
was prepared. Aerial photographs (USGS, US C&GS/ESSA/NOAA and other sources), 
maps and charts and foundation borings and other engineering data were catalogued. 
Despite delays in obtaining equipment, maps, charts and air photos and developing the 
capability of time-lapse motion picture photography, the objectives were reasonably 
accomplished. The collation of existing information is essentially completed except for 
keeping up with current publications. Site visits by all the project personnel have 
provided a good insight and working knowledge of the geology and physical condition, in 
the subject areas and the basic processes that affect these areas. Because of a 
prolonged but apparently unavoidable delay in receiving the smooth sheets and 
topographic charts for NOAA, work on the historical trends of shoreline change and, 
hence, the forecast of future trends is still underway. Along with the time-lapse 
photography this important study will be given first priority in the proposed 
continuation of the project. 

1973 - 1974 

Davis, G. E., and C. A. Hilsenbeck (1974) The effects of watershed management on the 
Shark Slough Whitewater Bay estuary of Everglades National Park, Florida. Final Report 
RSP-EVER-N-65. South Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 

16 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] A study on the 
effects of upstream environmental conditions on the epibenthic community structure in 
the Whitewater Bay - Shark River estuary was conducted during 1973 - 1974. It was 
found that runoff, as it affected water levels in the water shed and the reduction of 
annual rainfall and increase in saltwater intrusion from Florida Bay, determined the 
seasonality and magnitude of salinity flux in the estuary, resulting in the replacement 
of the estuarine nursery area by a coastal marine system. The authors suggest that 
although the system will remain productive, its loss will cause reduction of fisheries as 
supported by larval recruitment. Salinity and substrate significantly affected the 
amount of total benthic biomass. Authors suggest salinity most important since 
substrate does not change seasonally. 


208 


1973 - 1974 

Manker, J. P. (1975) Distribution and concentration of mercury, lead, cobalt, zinc, and 
chromium in suspended particulates and bottom sediments - upper Florida keys, Florida Bay 
and Biscayne Bay. Ph. D. Dissertation. Rice University, Houston, TX. 125 pp. 

Concentration of Pb, Hg, Cr, Co, and Zn have been determined in bottom sediments, the 
4-n fraction of bottom sediments, and in suspended particulates from the Upper Florida 
Keys/Biscayne Bay area. Highest concentrations are found in the 4-n and suspended 
fraction and may be related to more surface area being provided by fine particulates 
for adsorption/absorption of toxic metals. Organics associated with fine particulates 
also allow additional toxic metals, especially Hg, to be chelated or taken up in organic 
combinations. Toxic metal concentrations in suspended versus 4-|im fractions are 
similar as are their particle assemblages indicating the possible existence of chemical 
and physical equilibrium conditions between these fractions. Such equilibrium conditions 
could be disrupted by increased wave and/or current conditions which would place 
large volumes or bottom-derived material (4 ^ to 20 n) into suspension with associated 
toxic metals. A great potential exists during high winds for dispersal of this mobile 
fraction of bottom sediments concentrated in toxic metals to areas of low 
concentration. Because lagoonal environments contain large amounts of fine material, 
this process could take place to a greater extent. Even under normal wind conditions 
(~5 kts), two to three times as much fine material is in suspension in bay areas as 
compared to the reef tract areas. The mineralogy/chemistry of finer particles may 
play a role in toxic metal concentrations and distribution. In Biscayne Bay, which is 
mainly a sand-size quartz environment, high metal concentrations were predicted but 
low values were obtained. Immediately outside the quartz environment (i.e., on the reef 
tract) where CaC0 3 dominates, sediments high in concentrations of toxic metals were 
recorded. Such a discrepancy may be caused by calcium carbonate particles allowing 
toxic metals to be absorbed into the carbonate structure, where as the Si0 2 structure 
does not permit such substitution. Other reasons for low concentration of these metals 
in Biscayne Bay may be caused by the lack of fine particulates in this dominantly sand- 
size quartz environment for adsorption or absorption of metals, or perhaps most of 
these metals originate from outside the Bay. In general, toxic metal concentration in 
the study area can be correlated with areas of dense population with associated high 
automobile and boat traffic and improperly monitored and maintained sewage disposal 
systems. In addition, the Turkey Point nuclear/fossil fuel power plant may be linked 
with some metal concentrations. Pollutants (sewage and toxic metals) introduced in 
northern portions of the study area are able to move southward toward less populated 
areas by means of longshore drift and counter-currents present at the shelf margin. 
Highest toxic metal concentrations come from sediments receiving effluent from a 
storm sewer system in Tavernier Key, a marina on Key Largo, and a lagoonal area in 
Florida Bay. The latter two locations should be expected to yield high toxic metal 
concentrations because they are restricted basins in populated areas where these 
metals could accumulate. Metal concentrations are also noted near the Turkey Point 
generating facility for Hg, Zn, Cr, and Co. Build up of toxic metals in the outer reef 
tract area can be correlated with adjacent regions of maximum population and 
development. Carbon-12 enrichment in outer reef corals may indicate that sewage, 
which also carries toxic metals, is reaching the reef environment in the study area. It 
is considered that concentration of Pb and Hg in bottom sediments is reaching sufficient 
levels above background in certain areas of the Upper Keys to be of environmental 
concern. Such areas are those proximal to sewage outfalls (i.e. Tavernier Key) and in 
restricted basins (i.e. Pennekamp marina). Values are also high in bottom sediments for 
Cr, Co, and Zn, but little research has been done on the environmental impact of these 
metals. Therefore, predictions cannot be made for the study area ecosystem concerning 
the adverse effects of these metals. A previously indicated, toxic metals are more 


209 


concentrated in suspended particulates and in the 4-p fraction of bottom sediments. The 
influences of such concentrations on the environment are unknown. However, adverse 
effects may be expected in bottom-dwelling organisms that feed on silt and clay 
fractions of sediments where toxic metal concentrations are high. Organisms that 
ingest suspended particulates including plankton in areas of elevated metal 
concentrations may be subject to the adverse effects of these toxins. Obvious 
detrimental effects of toxic metals in the study area are elusive and difficult to define. 
A reduction in seagrass and green algae has been reported in areas of high toxic metal 
concentration in this paper and by other workers. Reefs which displayed highest 
concentrations of toxic metals have undergone serious deterioration which may be 
caused primarily from influx of cold water during extreme temperature conditions 
during winter months and secondarily by toxic metal contamination. Such 
concentrations of metals may serve to forewarn of continuing toxic metal accumulation 
commensurate with rapid development within the study area. 

1973 - 1974 

Odell, D. K. (1975) Status and aspects of the life history of the bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops 
truncatus, in Florida. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. . 32(7): 1055-58. 

Aerial censuses of the bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus, in waters of the 
Everglades National Park carried out every 1 - 2 months during 1973 and 1974 
resulted in sightings of a minimum of five and a maximum of 79 animals. Seasonal 
variation in numbers apparently occurs. The survey covered Florida Bay, Whitewater 
Bay, the Gulf of Mexico coast within Park boundaries and western inland waters. 

1973 - 1974 

Schmidt, T. W. (1986) Food of young juvenile lemon sharks, Negaprion brevirostris (Poey), 
near Sandy Key, western Florida Bay. Florida Scientist . 49(1 ):7-9. 

The food habits of the lemon shark, Negaprion brevirostris, were investigated by 
examining the stomach contents of juveniles between 58 and 100 cm in total length 
from shallow grass flats near Sandy Key in western Florida Bay. Sharks were obtained 
from monthly seine collections of fishes made at three sites in the Bay from May 1973 
to June 1974. Small demersal fish, mainly Opsanus beta and Lagodon rhomboides, and 
the commercially important pink shrimp, Penaeus duorarum, were the most common 
dietary items of N. brevirostris in the coastal marine waters. Small, fast-moving 
pelagic fishes were also found in the shark's diet. 

1973 - 1974 

Schmidt, T. W. (1979) Seasonal biomass estimates of marine and estuarine fishes within 
the western Florida Bay portion of Everglades National Park, May 1973 to July 1974. 
Proc., First Conf. on Scientific Research in the National Parks, Vol. I. New Orleans, LA. 

November 9 -12, 1976. R. M. Linn (ed.). National Park Service Trans, and Proc. Series, 

5:665-72. 

Trawls were used to sample the demersal fish inhabiting channels and basins of depth in 
excess of 1 m while beach seines were used to sample the entire water column (<1 m) 
over nearshore grass beds and intertidal sand and mudflats. Sampling took place in 
1973 and 1974. The objectives of these fishery investigations were established in part 
to provide data for the first time on the seasonal, relative abundance, and biomass of 
the estuarine and marine fish fauna by habitat and their relationship with various 

environmental parameters. The results were used to assist in the evaluation of sport 

and commercial fisheires resource management program within the Florida Bay portion 
of the Everglades National Park. 


210 




1973 - 1975 

Odell, D. K. (1976) Distribution and abundance of marine mammals in south Florida: 
preliminary results. Biscavne Bav: Past/Present/Future . A. Thorhaug and A. Volkes (eds). 
Symp. No. 1, Spec. Rep. 5, Info. Serv., University of Miami, Sea Grant Program, Coral 
Gables, FL. 203-12. 

The preliminary results of aerial surveys to study the distribution and abundance of the 
bottlenose dolphin ( Tursiops truncatus) and the manatee ( Trichechus manatus) in South 
Florida are reported. Light aircraft were used to survey the waters of the Everglades 
National Park from September 1973 through December 1975 and the waters of 
Biscayne Bay and vicinity from July 1974 through June 1975. Flights were made 
approximately every two weeks and the same flight path was followed on each flight in 
both the Everglades National Park and Biscayne Bay. Forty flights (100 survey hours) 
were completed in the Park and twenty flights (40 survey hours) in Biscayne Bay. 
Three hundred eighty-five (385) dolphin herds totaling 1137 individuals were counted 
in the Park. Sighting rate was 11.37 animals per survey hour. Herd size ranged from 1 
to 25 with a mean of 2.95 animals per herd. Six dolphin herds totaling 50 individuals 
were seen during the Biscayne Bay surveys. Sighting rate was 1.25 animals per survey 
hour. Herd size ranged from 3 to 13 with a mean of 8 animals per herd. Previous data 
of this type is not available for either area. Possible reasons for the difference in 
dolphin abundance in the two are given. These include geographic differences, food 
distribution and abundance, and direct and indirect human-related factors. Little 
information is available on the natural history of the bottlenose dolphin in the survey 
areas and a research program is outlined. No manatees were seen on the Biscayne Bay 
survey transects. A total of 575 manatees was seen during the 100 survey hours in 
the Park (5.75 per hour). The number of manatees seen per flight ranged from 0 to 75 
with a mean of 14.38 per flight. In the cases of both the dolphins and the manatees, 
some of the same individuals were probably seen on successive flights. Little 
information is available about the natural history of the manatee and the research 
program outline for the dolphin could apply to this animal as well. 

1973 - 1976 

Getter, C. D. (1976) The systematics and biology of the poeciliid fish, Gambusia 
rhizophorae, with an account of its hybridization with Gambusia affinis, and Gambusia 
punctata. M. S. Thesis. University of Miami., Coral Gables, FL. 129 pp. 

The systematics and biology of the mangrove gambusia, Gambusia rhizophorae Rivas 
(1969) (mangrove gambusia), were studied. Particular attention was paid to its 
intrageneric relationships, especially with G. punctata and G. affinis, with which it 
shares part of its range. G. punctata, a closely related species, is sympatric with G. 
rhizophorae in Cuba; a possible case of hybridization between the two species is 
reported, and the species status of G. rhizophorae reaffirmed. Coloration in life is 
described. G. rhizophorae is a tropical species with a distjunct range, which is native to 
marine and brackish waters of southeast Florida and northwest Cuba. It is typically a 
resident of sheltered mangrove areas. In Florida, the species is distributed from Fort 
Lauderdale, south along the mainland coast to Key Largo, throughout the Florida Keys to 
Key West; the Florida range appears to be correlated to the 16.7°C winter isotherm. G. 
rhizophorae appears to have differentiated from G. punctata in Cuba and to have been 
dispersed to Florida by currents. An integral part of the mangrove ecosystem, G. 
rhizophorae feeds on terrestrial insects, and is in turn fed upon by fish-eating birds and 
fishes. Maximum size for females is 50.8 mm SL, and 38.9 mm SL for males. Females 
begin to mature at about five months, becoming gravid by the eighth month. Senility 
begins after ten months. Few females survive over thirteen months. Males have a 
shorter lifespan. The species thus lives one year or less in nature. Males cease growing 
at maturity, which begins at 15 mm; 50% of the males mature by 28 mm. Maturity in 


21 1 



males is seasonal, with close correlation to the percentage of gravid females. Fewer, 
larger mature males are present during the reproductive peak, determined by fertility 
indices to occur during March, April and May. From 12 to 25 mm SL, sex ratios are 
approximately 60:40, males to females, becoming 50:50 between 25 and 26 mm SL. 
The number of males then begins a steady decline with increasing size. Brood size 
ranged from 2 to 65 embryos with an average of 13.4. G. rhizophorae becomes 
sexually inactive in late summer until the end of winter, followed by a three-month 
spring reproductive peak. A specialized courtship occurs before copulation which 
closely resembles that described for G. punctata. Hybridization with G. affinis is 
demonstrated to occur naturally in Florida, and the nature of this cross was examined. 
Fertile hybrids were described between these two subgenerically distinct species, and 
implications discussed in terms of the speciation and systematics of Gambusia. This 
study was based on collections made by various scientists over a period of decades. 
The specimens from Florida bay were collected from 1973 to 1976. 

1973 - 1976 

Odell, D. K. (1976) Distribution and abundance of marine mammals in the waters of 
Everglades National Park. Proc., First Conf. on Scientific Res. in the National Parks. R. M. 
Linn (ed.). Trans, and Proc. Ser. 5. US Department of the Interior, Washington, DC. 673-81. 
Aerial surveys were conducted from 1973 through 1976 to assess the populations of 
dolphins and Manatees in waters of the Everglades National Park. Bottlenose dolphins 
were observed in all but one of the 48 flights. Five hundred seventy three (573) dolphin 
herds were sighted totaling 1651 individuals. Mean herd size was 2.88 animals. Only 
56 of the dolphins were calves. This count may be low as the calves stay very close to 
the mother and may be difficult to observe from the air. Fifty percent of the herds 
were feeding. The distribution of the dolphin sightings were: Florida Bay, 11%; 
Whitewater Bay, 33%; Gulf of Mexico, 36%; and inland waters, 20%. Dolphins 
appeared to be less abundant in the Park during September, October and November. 
Manatees were not observed as frequently as dolphins. These animals can stay 
submerged for 20 min and only need to raise the tip of the nose to breathe so aerial 
sightings may be difficult. Three hundred two (302) manatee herds totaling 772 
individuals were sighted. Mean herd size was 2.55 animals. The distribution of the 
manatee sightings were: Florida Bay, 1%; Whitewater Bay, 46%; Gulf of Mexico, 
20%; and inland waters, 23%. The low abundance of manatees in Florida Bay may be 
shallow water or lack of freshwater to drink. 

1973 - 1976 

Schmidt, T. W. (1979) Ecological study of fishes and the water quality characteristics of 
Florida Bay, Everglades National Park, Florida. Final Rept. RSP-EVER N-36. South Florida 
Research Center, Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 144 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] An ecological 
study of the fishes of Florida Bay was directed toward acquiring baseline information 
on their relative abundance by number and biomass, habitat types, and the effect of 
environmental conditions on their distribution. A total of 182,530 fishes representing 
128 species and 50 families were collected throughout Florida Bay. Their total biomass 
was 764.9 kg. An additional 21 species were identified from supplemental 
observations. In general the greatest numbers and biomass of the fishes occurred 
during the wet season (summer and fall months) whereas the lowest numbers and 
biomass occurred during the dry season (winter and spring months). The greatest 
abundance and diversity of fishes was found in western Florida Bay followed by eastern 
and central Bay regions, respectively. The sampled areas of Florida Bay was found to 
support seagrass and macroalgal communities composed primarily of Thalassia 
testudinum, Halodule wrightii, and green algae, Pencillus sp. Salinity appeared to be the 
most important factor measured affecting fish distribution. 


212 


1973 - 1976 

Schmidt, T. W. (1989) Food habits, length-weight relationships and condition factor of 
young great barracuda, Syphraena barracuda (Walbaum), from Florida Bay, Everglades 
National Park, Florida. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. 
Bull. Mar. Sci.. 44(i ):i 63-70. 

The food habits of the great barracuda, Syphyraena barracuda, were investigated by 
examining the stomach contents of fish between 36 and 441 mm TL from the shallow 
grassbeds of Florida Bay. Juvenile barracuda less than 333 mm fed on small epibenthic 
fish. Goldspotted killifish, Floridichthys carpio, and rainwater killifish, Lucania parva, 
were the most common dietary items of juvenile S. barracuda. Food habits of juveniles 
were relatively constant with season and location within the estuary. Larger food 
organisms were consumed by adult barracuda. The calculated length - weight 
relationship for 97 barracuda (33 142 mm TL) was log 10 W = -5.0148 + 2.8663 log 10 L, 
and the mean condition factor was 0.497. This study was based on 106 specimens 
collected during ichthyofaunal surveys from 1973 to 1976. 

1973 - 1976, 1982 - 1985 

Rutherford, E. S., T. W. Schmidt, and J. T. Tilmant (1986) Early life history of spotted 
seatrout, red drum, gray snapper, and snook in Everglades National Park, Florida. Rep. 
86/07. South Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 99 pp. 

We present results of recent studies on distribution, habitat, and relative abundance of 
larvae and juveniles of the four most popular gamefish species in Everglades National 
Park, (spotted seatrout, red drum, gray snapper, snook). The National Park Service 
and NOAA/NMFS personnel sampled larvae from 1982 to 1985 in passes and creeks 
bordering the park and sampled juveniles from 1973 to 1976 and from 1982 to 1985 in 
mangrove creeks, channels, shorelines, banks, basins, and bays. We collected larvae of 
spotted seatrout and red drum and juveniles of four species. Spotted seatrout were 
found to spawn in park waters, predominantly in western Florida Bay. We caught 
spotted seatrout larvae in mesohaline and marine salinities during every month but 
January with peaks in June to September. Catches (larvae 100 nr 3 ) varied by station 
and year but approximated those taken 20 yrs ago. We collected juvenile spotted 
seatrout in euryhaline seagrass beds of mixed species composition ( Thalassia 
testudinum, Halodule wrightii, and Syringodium filiforme). Juveniles were most 
abundant in western Florida Bay mixed species seagrass beds of 1,000-4,000 shoots 
m* 2 , where the percent organic matter and density and biomass of S. filiforme were 
higher than in areas without spotted seatrout. Red drum and gray snapper were found to 
spawn outside of park waters. Red drum entered the park from September to January 
as larvae and inhabited shallow brackish waters near mangrove shorelines and in 
creeks. Larval drum catches were lower than those taken 20 yrs ago. Gray snapper 
entered park waters as post larvae and small juveniles, inhabiting euryhaline seagrass 
beds in banks, basins and channels, and mangrove roots. Juvenile gray snapper were 
most abundant in Florida Bay mixed seagrass beds with 1,000 - 4,000 shoots m' 2 of 
higher densities and biomass Halodule wrightii and Syringodium filiforme than other 
areas sampled. Adult spawning areas and habitat of young snook remain unknown as few 
young-of-year were collected. Juvenile snook 1 - 2 yrs old were present in euryhaline 
mangrove shorelines and creeks. We estimated monthly mortality rates of juvenile 
spotted seatrout 16 - 144 SL (A = 34.7%) and juvenile gray snapper 72 - 116 mm SL 
(A = 39.5%) using catch curve analysis. 

1973 - 1976, 1982 - 1985 

Rutherford, E. S., T. W. Schmidt, and J. T. Tilmant (1989) Early life history of spotted 
seatrout ( Cynoscion nebulosus) and gray snapper ( Lutjanus griseus) in Florida Bay, 


213 



Everglades National Park, Florida. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. 
June, 1987. Bull. Mar. ScL 44(1):49-64. 

This report describes information on distribution, habitat, and relative abundance of 
spotted seatrout and gray snapper in Florida Bay. Larvae were sampled from 1982 to 
1984 in channels, passes and creeks bordering Florida Bay and juveniles were sampled 
from 1973 to 1976 and from 1982 to 1985 in mangrove creeks, channels, shorelines, 
banks, basins, and bays. Spotted seatrout were found to spawn predominantly in 
western Florida Bay. Spotted seatrout larvae were caught in marine salinities during 
every month but October and January with peaks in June to September. Juvenile 
spotted seatrout were collected mainly in mixed species of seagrass beds (Thalassia 
testudinum. Halodule wrightii, and Syringodium filiforme). Juveniles were most 
abundant in western Florida Bay mixed species seagrass beds of 1,000 - 4,000 shoots 
itt 2 , where the percent organic matter and density and biomass of S. filiforme were 
higher than in areas without spotted seatrout. Gray snapper spawn outside of park 
waters. They enter Florida Bay as post larvae and small juveniles, inhabiting seagrass 
beds in banks, basins and channels, and mangrove prop roots. Juvenile gray snapper 
were most abundant in Florida Bay mixed species seagrass beds of higher densities of 
Halodule and Syringodium than other areas sampled. Monthly mortality rates of juvenile 
spotted seatrout 16 - 144 mm SL (A = 34.7%) and juvenile gray snapper 72 - 116 mm 
SL (A = 39.5%) were estimated using catch curve analysis of length frequencies. 

1973 - 1980 

Getter, C. D. (1981) Ecology and survival of the key silverside, Menidia conchorum, an 
antherinid fish endemic to the Florida Keys. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Miami, Coral 
Gables, FL. 405 pp. 

The key silverside, Menidia conchorum, was studied as an indicator of adaptations to 
environmental conditions in lagoonal and ponded water habitats of Florida Bay and the 
lower Florida Keys. Evidence is presented to support the current view of ichthyologists 
that M. conchorum is a valid species. It occurs in lagoons from Grassy Key to Key West. 
This lagoonal habitat is shared by a distinct community. Such lagoons are characterized 
by rapid fluctuations and broad ranges of physico-chemical parameters. M. conchorum 
feeds on planktonic crustaceans and terrestrial insects. Maximum size for females is 
about 58 mm (SL) and 50.1 mm for males. Maturation appears to take place at about 40 
mm. The species appears to live one year or less in nature. Reproduction continues 
year-round with peaks in fertility in the spring and fall. Its population size is seasonal, 
with a low point in late summer and fall. Nearly all populations inhabit lagoons altered 
by man and the species is judged as threatened with extinction. 

1973 - 1980 

Getter, C. D. (1982) Temperature limitations to the distribution of mangrove mosquitofish 
in Florida. Fla, Sci. . 45:196-200. 

An extensive survey of southern Florida revealed a limited, coastal distribution of the 
mangrove mosquitofish ( Gambusia rhizophorae). However, discovery of the species in 
collections from Cuban freshwaters indicates that it is not salinity-limited. Laboratory 
studies determined the low-temperature tolerance of the species to be 17°C. The 
winter, low-temperature isotherm for southern Florida at this temperature intersects 
all furthest-known points north and west of the species distribution. Temperature 
limitations to distribution may be controlled by fertility which, for the mangrove, 
mosquitofish, is known to be correlated with temperature. This study was based on an 
extensive field survey conducted from 1973 to 1980. 


214 




1 974 

DeFelice, D. R. (1975) Model studies of epiphytic diatoms of upper Florida Bay and 
associated sounds. M.S. Thesis, Duke University. Durham, NC. 193 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] The diatom flora 
of northeastern Florida Bay and adjoining sounds, primarily within the boundaries of 
Everglades National Park, was modeled using factor-vector analysis and species 
diversity indices. Of the four distinct floras identified, two were epipelic floras 
inhabitating the carbonate mud substratum. One hundred and sixty-two species were 
identified from 30 stations, 34 of which were restricted to the epiphytic habitat and 18 
species were limited to the epipelic habitat. It was found that the epipelic flora was 
significantly more diverse than the epiphytic flora and the diversity of floras of both 
habitats increased away from land areas. Factors affecting the distribution of both 
floral types are hypothesized. 


1 974 

DeFelice, D. R., and G. W. Lynts (1978) Benthic marine diatom associations: upper Florida 

Bay (Florida) and associated sounds. J. PhycoL 14(1 ):25-33. 

Models of the diatom associations found in upper Florida Bay and adjoining sounds have 
been constructed utilizing Q modal factor-vector analysis and ecologic diversity indices 
(Shannon index, number of species, eveness). Four distinct associations were defined 
using Q-mode factor-vector analysis. Two associations were epiphytic, occurring on 
Thalassia testudinum Konig: Association I was characterized by Cocconeis placentula 
(Ehr.); and Association III by Cylindrotheca closterium (Ehr.) Reim & Lewin and 
Cocconeis placentula Ehr. The other two associations were epipelic, occurring on the 
carbonate mud substratum: Association II was characterized by Cyclotella striata 
(Kutz.) Grun., Rhopalodia gibberula (Ehr.) O. Muller and Surirella fastuosa (Ehr.) Kutz.; 
and Association IV by Fragilaria crotonensis Kitton and Cyclotella striata (Kutz.) Grun. 
The majority of the 161 species identified were present in both the epiphytic and 
epipelic assemblages. Only 33 species were restricted to the epiphyton and 18 species 
restricted to the epipelon. The epipelic assemblage was significantly more diverse than 
was the epiphytic assemblage. A general trend of increased diversity away from 
terrestrial environs toward more open areas of water in both the epipelon and 
epiphyton was also found. 


1974 0 

DuBar, J. R. (1974) Summary of the Neogene stratigraphy of southern Florida. 

Post-Miocene Stratigraphy, Central and Southern Atlantic Coastal Plain . R. Q. Oaks and J. 

R. DuBar (eds.). Utah University Press, Logan, UT. 206-65. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This report summarizes the 
present status of Neogene (post-Oligocene) stratigraphic studies in southern Florida. 
With some exceptions, general accord prevails concerning application of Neogene 
formational terminology; however, there exists little general agreement regarding the 
correlation or ages of formations. Diversity of opinion is partly a by-product of 
inadequate stratigraphic control due to thinness and sparsity of exposures, and to a 
paucity of subsurface data; it is also, in part, a function of differing stratigraphic 
philosophies of the principal investigators. The maximum thickness of Neogene 
formations in southern Florida is measured in tens of feet, and collectively their 
thickness probably does not exceed 600 ft. The formations discussed in this report are: 
(1) Tamiami (upper and lower members), (2) Caloosahatchee, (3) Bermont, (4) Ft. 
Thompson, (5) Anastasia, (6) Miami Limestone, (7) Key Largo Limestone, and (8) Lake 
Flirt. 'Terrace-plain formations’ recognized by various authors are not discussed. With 
the exception of the Lake Flirt, a freshwater deposit, all the formations are 
predominantly of nearshore-marine origin. On the basis of stratigraphic relationships, 


215 




radiometric dating, paleoecological analyses, and comparative faunal studies the 
following age assignments have been made: (1) Lower Tamiami (medial Miocene to 
medial Pliocene); (2) Upper Tamiami (medial to late Pliocene); (3) Caloosahatchee 
(early to medial Pleistocene, 400,000 yrs BP); (4) Bermont (medial Pleistocene); (5) 
Ft. Thompson (late Pleistocene, 120,000 to 140,000 yrs BP); (6) Anastasia (late 
Pleistocene); (7) Miami Limestone (late Pleistocene, 120,000 to 130,000 yrs BP); (8) 
Key Largo Limestone (late Pleistocene, 95,000 yrs BP); and (9) Lake Flirt (Wisconsin, 
7000 to 21,000 yrs BP). 


1974 0 

Gentry, R. C. (1974) Hurricanes in South Florida. Environments of South Florida: Present 
and Past. Memoir 2. P. J. Gleason (ed.). Miami Geological Society, Coral Gables, FL. 73-80. 
[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Hurricanes or tropical storms 
have struck South Florida half of the years during the past century and the frequency of 
hurricanes is greater in South Florida than in any other place in the United States. The 
winds and the storm surge of the hurricane do great damage to property, to trees, 
other plants and to the coasts of the area as well as cause much loss of life. The rains 
can bring either much needed water or unwelcome floods depending on the 
circumstance. This section discusses the frequency of hurricanes, damaging forces of 
the storms, and a few of the famous hurricanes that have ravaged South Florida. 

1974 0. 

Gleason, P. J., A. D. Cohen, H. K. Brooks, P. Stone, R. Goodrick, W. G. Smith, and W. 
Spackman (1974) The environmental significance of Holocene sediments from the 
Everglades and saline tidal plain. Environments of South Florida: Present and Past. Memoir 
2. P. J. Gleason (ed.). Miami Geological Society, Coral Gables, FL. 287-341. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The distribution, age, 
composition, rates of deposition, and depositional environments of macroscopically 
identifiable organic and inorganic Holocene sediments of interior and marginal areas of 
South Florida are reviewed and discussed. Four topics are selectively treated: 1) Tree 
island formation and the petrographically-determined peat stratigraphy of three 
hammocks in the northern Everglades; 2) Sedimentation changes which have occurred in 
the peats and with respect to freshwater calcitic muds within Taylor Slough; 3) 
Transgression and regression of the sea along segments of the South Florida coast; and 
4) Evidence for climatic change in South Florida during the Holocene. 


1974 0 

Hoffmeister, J. E. (1974) Land from the Sea . University of Miami Press, Coral Gables, FL. 
143 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This citation is a review of the 
geologic history of South Florida including Florida Bay. 


1974 0 

O'Brien, N. R., K. Tompkins, and S. Bryson (1974) Clues in recent carbonate sediment and 
limestone revealed by electron microscopy. Earth Sci. . 27(4):217-21. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This paper describes the use of 
electron microscopy in the study of carbonate sediments including those of Florida Bay. 


1974 0 

Parker, G. (1974) Hydrology of the pre-drainage system of the Everglades in Southern 
Florida. Environments of South Florida: Present and Past II . P. J. Gleason (ed.). Miami 
Geological Society, Coral Gables, FL. 22-7. 


216 








[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.) The Everglades, covering an area 
of about 3,900 square mi, is the lower segment of a large naturally integrated drainage 
system of about 9,000 square miles. Lake Okeechobee occupies a 730 square mi basin 
with its floor at sea level almost in the middle of this system. In pre-drainage days as 
now, drainage began in the northern-most part of the Kissimmee River basin, near 
Orlando, and flowed southeast into the lake. During these pre-drainage times, most of 
the KLOE (Kissimmee - Lake Okeechobee - Everglades) drainage system was inundated 
much of the time and during flood periods when the Lake's level rose to heights of about 
14.6 ft MSL (mean sea level), two separate segments of the Lake's southern shore, 
totaling about 19 mi, overflowed into the Everglades. When lake levels reached about 
18 ft MSL, the entire southern shore for a length of about 32 mi poured a sheet flood 
into the upper glades. Sheet flow continued from there on south to the Bay of Florida 
with notable discharge to the Atlantic Ocean through such streams as New and Miami 
Rivers, and through transverse glades across the coastal ridge. During extended 
droughts, the sawgrass plains dried out and at times fierce fires swept the glades 
burning the muck and peat down to the lowered water table. Buried ash layers 
incorporated into the body of the peat deposits give mute testimony to these prehistoric 
fires and the severe droughts that allowed them to burn the dried-out peat. 


1974 0 

Stephens, J. C. (1974) Subsidence of organic soils in the Florida Everglades - a review and 
update. Enviro n ments o f South Fl orid a; Pre sent and Past, Memoir 2. P. J. Gleason (ed.). 
Miami Geological Society, Coral Gables, FL. 352-361. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.) The Everglades contains the 
largest single tract of organic soils in the world, over 3,100 square miles. Formed 
under marshy conditions, they subsided when drained by compaction, biochemical 
oxidation or burning. Biochemical oxidation has accounted for approximately two-thirds 
of the total loss of the arable soils in the Everglades. Subsidence has had serious 
environmental effects on agriculture, water supplies, and wildlife. Flooding the land in 
Conservation Areas will halt subsidence, and losses on arable lands can be ameliorated 
by maintaining water tables as high as feasible, making productive use of drained lands 
as soon as possible, and increasing research. 


1974 0 

Thomas, T. M. (1974) A detailed analysis of climatological and hydrological records of 
South Florida with reference to man's influence upon ecosystem evolution. Environments of 
South Florida: Present and Past. Memoir 2. P. J. Gleason (ed.). Miami Geological Society, 
Coral Gables, FL. 82-122. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.) An attempt has been made to 
summarize the historical climatological records of southern Florida south of latitude 
29° N. Rainfall and temperature records were obtained for 157 stations within this 
region. Calculations determined that a minimum of seven years data per station was 
required to obtain statistically valid monthly and annual averages, but that the 10 - 15 
yrs, suggested by Sass (1967) were more suitable. Using monthly and annual averages 
calculated for 119 station many of which dated prior to 1900, synoptic maps were 
constructed displaying the geographical distribution of these two climatic variables. 
From statistical inference, i.e. averages, standard deviations and coefficients of 
variation, areas with similar characteristics were isolated and reduced to a single 
monthly time series record varying from 50 to 70 yrs in length and analyzed for 
evidence of long term changes as well as cyclical behavior. This analysis suggests that 
no long term changes have occurred when independently considering all the Januarys, 
Februarys, Marches, etc. but that from a standpoint of a linear record by month, by 
years a bi-annual component appears as well as one in the proximity of five years. This 


217 





five year component seems to be most pronounced in the area along the eastern coastal 
ridge, disappearing in areas west and north-west of it. The results of this analysis are 
considered with respect to changes in the elevation of freshwater table due to man's 
influence, the natural rise in sea level due to deglaciation, and the mechanism effecting 
changes in estuarine and near shore salinities. 


1974 0 

Wanless, H. R. (1974) Mangrove sedimentation in geologic perspective. Environments of 

South Florida: Present and Past. Memoir 2. P. J. Gleason (ed.). Miami Geological Society, 

Coral Gables, FL. 190-200. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Coastal mangrove swamps are a 
passive sedimentary environment, offering some resistance to erosion in which peat 
accumulates predominate if the area is protected from strong physical agitation and 
detrital sediment influx. Coastal swamps have produced transgressive, regressive, 
oscillating and equilibrium (non-migrating) accumulates on the South Florida and Bahama 
Platforms during the postglacial, Holocene, sea-level rise. The varied patterns of 
coastal swamp sedimentation are related to the complex pre-existing and evolving co¬ 
existing topography through its influence on wave and current patterns, detrital 
sediment influx and freshwater drainage. Physical and chemical attributions of 
mangrove swamps can strongly influence the character of adjacent sedimentary 
environments. 

1974 - 1975 

Kushlan, J. , and D. White (1977) Nesting wading bird populations in southern Florida. Fla. 

Sci. . 40:65-72. 

Wading birds, including ibises, herons, and storks, which once nested in southern 
Florida by the millions have decreased because of habitat destruction. A 1974 - 1975 
survey located 41 colonies and 129,800 wading birds nesting in southern Florida. White 
ibis and cattle egret were most abundant: populations of great egrets, little blue 
herons, Louisiana herons and snowy egrets were lower than expected. Wading birds 
nested year round but individual species had more circumscribed nesting seasons which 
differed seasonally and between inland and coastal colonies. 

1974 - 1980 

Iverson, R. L., and H. F. Bittaker (1986) Seagrass distribution and abundance in eastern 

Gulf of Mexico coastal waters. Est. Coastal Shelf Sci. . 22:577-602. 

The marine angiosperms Thalassia testudinum, Syringodium filiforme, and Halodule 
wrightii form two of the largest reported seagrass beds along the northwest and 
southern coasts of Florida where they cover about 3000 square km in the Big Bend area 
and about 5500 square km in Florida Bay, respectively. Samples were taken from 1974 
to 1980. Most of the leaf biomass in the Big Bend area and outer Florida Bay was 
composed of T. testudinum and S. filiforme which were distributed throughout the beds 
but which were more abundant in shallow depths. A short-leaved form of Halodule 
wrightii grew in monotypic stands in shallow water near the inner edges of the beds, 
while Halophila decipiens and a longer-leaved variety of H. wrightii grew scattered 
throughout the beds, in monotypic stands near the outer edges of the beds, and in 
deeper water outside the beds. Halophila engelmanni was observed scattered at various 
depths throughout the seagrass beds and in monospecific patches in deep water outside 
the northern bed. Ruppia maritima grew primarily in brackish water around river 
mouths. The cross-shelf limits of the two major seagrass beds are controlled 
nearshore by increased water turbidity and lower salinity around river mouths and 
offshore by light penetration to depths which receive 10% or more of sea surface 
photosynthetically active radiation. Seagrasses form large beds only along low energy 


218 







reaches of the coast. The Florida Bay seagrass bed contained about twice the short- 
shoot density of both T. testudinum and S. filiforme for data averaged over all depths, 
and about four times the average short-shoot density of both species in shallow water 
compared with the Big Bend seagrass bed. The differences in average seagrass 
abundance between Florida Bay and the Big Bend area may be a consequence of the 
effects of greater seasonal solar radiation and water temperature fluctuations 
experienced by plants in the northern bed, which lies at the northern distribution limit 
for American Tropical seagrasses. 


1975 0 

DeFelice, D. R. (1975) Model studies of epiphytic and epipelic diatoms. Geol. Soc. Amer. 

Abs.. 7(7): 1048. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Studies on the 
diatoms of northeast Florida Bay resulted in the construction of models utilizing factor- 
vector analysis and species diversity indices which identified four distinct floras. Two 
of these were epiphytic floras living on Thalassia which were characterized by the 
dominant species Cocconeis placentula, Mastigloia crucicula, M. ovata, and Nitzschia 
closterium. The other two were epipelic floras living on the carbonate mud substratum 
which were characterized by the dominant species Cyclotella striata, Rhopalodia 
gibberula, Nitzschia panduriformis, Amphora actiuscula, A. coffeaiformis, and 
Fragilaria crotonensis. The majority of the 162 diatom species were identified in both 
the epiphytic and epipelic floras. The epipelic flora were significantly more diverse and 
a general trend was found of increased diversity in both the epipelic and epiphytic 
habitats, away from the Everglades and the Florida Keys. 


1975 0 

Multer, H. G. (ed.). (1975) Field guide to some carbonate rock environments; Florida Keys 
and western Bahamas. Contrib. No. 40. Dept, of Earth Science, Fairleigh Dickinson 
University, Madison, NJ. 175 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This is a field guide to the 
carbonate environments of the Florida Keys and the Bahamas Bank. Aereal and 
underwater photographs are included in the citation. 

1975 - 1979 

Davis, G. E., and J. W. Dodrill (1980) Marine parks and sanctuaries for spiny lobster 
fisheries management. Proc. Gulf Carib. Fish. Inst. . 32:194-207. 

[ABSTRACT IN SPANISH. SUMMARY PAPER BASED ON PREVIOUS STUDIES.] Los parques 
maritimos podrian proveer servicios valiosos para los cientificos y administradores 
pesqueros si estuvieran libres de los impactos de la captura. Los estudios de la langosta 
espinosa en cuatro parques nacionales de los Estados Unidos se utilizan para describir 
beneficios potenciales por repoblacion, conservacion de la variabilidad genetica; 
proveen oportunidades educacionales, deportivas y esteticas; actuan como base para el 
estudio y evaluacion de programas de administracion; y proveen poblaciones virgenes 
para los estimados de la produccion sostenida. En la Florida, tres parques nacionales 
contienen amplios recursos de langosta espinosa principalmente Panulirus argus. El 
Monumento Nacional Fort Jefferson en las Dry Tortugas cubre 190 km 2 de arrecifes de 
corales y placeres de grama marina que mantienen langostas espinosas adultas y 
juveniles. El Monumento Nacional Biscayne, al sur de Miami en la parte norte de los 
cayos de la Florida, incluye 190 km 2 de laguna tropical en el sur de la Bahia Biscayne y 
200 km 2 de arrecifes de corales y placeres al este de los cayos. Juveniles de langosta 
espinosa ocupan cerca de 1,000 km 2 de grama marina y del fondo dominado por 
octocorales en la Bahia de la Florida dentro del Parque Nacional de los Everglades. En el 
Parque Nacional de las Islas Virgenes, cerca de 230 km 2 de arrecifes de coral costeros 


219 





y de bahi'as costeras alrededor de la isla St. John, mantienen langostas espinosas 
adultas y juveniles. Las observaciones de mas de 15,000 ejemplares de P. argus 
marcados en las poblaciones de estos parques, estan resumidos para proveer 
informacion del desarrollo, mortalidad, reproduccion y movimiento. Los factores que se 
encontraron afectaban mas el desarrollo, fueron las estaciones y danos a los juveniles, 
y el sexo de los adultos. Las poblaciones virgenes proporcionaron estimados directos de 
mortalidad natural. El tamano de la madurez primaria en las problaciones virgenes fue 
mayor que en las poblaciones mas explotadas. Juveniles de P. argus demostraron 
movimientos direccionales extensivo hasta de 200 km, mientras los adultos 
demostraron movimientos restringidos por aproximadamente dos anos. Las devolu- 
ciones de las placas de identificacion durante la temporada de 1977 - 1978 en la Florida 
se dividieron igualmente entre Pescadores deportivos (49%) y comerciales (51%). Sin 
embargo, las devoluciones de las placas de identificacion que fueron situadas directa- 
mente en las nasas o trampas comerciales demostraron que solamente 11% de las 
placas de identificacion en las nasas fueron reportadas. Estas devoluciones demuestran 
que la captura deportiva fue 9% del total en la parte node de los cayos de la Florida si 
todas la placas fueron reportadas. El escape promedio de la langosta de nasas no 
recobradas fue de 1.2% diario durente los 14 dias de caladas. 

1975 - 1988 

Halley, R. B., P. K. Swart, R. E. Dodge, and J. H. Hudson (1994) Decade-scale trend in 
seawater salinity revealed through 5 18 0 analysis of Montastraea annularis annual growth 
bands. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3):670-8. 

Stable oxygen isotope ratios (8 ie O) of coral skeletons are influenced by ambient water 
temperature and by the oxygen isotope ratio in the surrounding seawater, which, in 
turn, is linked to evaporation (salinity) and precipitation. To investigate this 
relationship more thoroughly, we collected hourly temperature data from the Hens and 
Chickens Reef in the Florida Keys between 1975 and 1988 and compared them to the 
6 18 0 of Montastraea annularis skeleton that grew during the same interval. To ensure 
that we obtained the correct oxygen isotopic range in the skeleton we typically sampled 
the coral at a resolution of 20 - 30 samples in one year; in one year we sampled the 
coral at a resolution of 70 samples yr' 1 . Despite our high-resolution sampling, we were 
unable to obtain the full temperature-induced 5 18 0 range in the skeleton. Our data 
suggest that, during the summer, evaporation causes isotopic enrichment in the water, 
partially masking the temperature-induced signal. Our data also show that oxygen 
isotopic composition of seawater at the reef has increased since 1981. This increase 
indicates that salinity has increased slightly during the past decade, perhaps as a result 
of increased evaporation in waters of Florida Bay and the Keys. This phenomenon is 
probably not caused by a decrease in the outflow of freshwater into Florida Bay from 
the Everglades but may be related to the measured deficit in precipitation that has 
occurred over the past decade. 


1976 

Halley, R. B., and R. P. Steinen (1979) Ground water observations on small carbonate 
islands in southern Florida. Guide to Sedimentation for the Drv Tortuqas . R. B. Halley 
(compiler). Southeastern Geol. Soc. Publ. 21. 82-9. 

The ground water of Loggerhead and Cluett Key differs significantly from surrounding 
seawater despite the relatively small size (a few hundred m) of these islands. Climate 
alone does not determine the character of these ground waters; for example, 
Loggerhead Key is underlain by less saline ground water than Cluett Key despite the 
fact that it receives less rainfall. Ground water under small islands such as these is 
formed from a complex variety of variables that affect the hydrology of the islands. 
These variables include topography, sediment character, vegetation, and many more 


220 




parameters that are themselves interrelated. They conspire to form island ground 
water that not only differs from seawater but also can react with the island sediments 
to change the character of ground water. In this manner, island ground waters serve as 
geologic agents, hastening the alteration of marine carbonate sediments to limestone 
and dolomite. This study was done in 1976. 


1976 0 

Hovorka, S. D., P. E. Luttrell, and T. D. Murphy (1976) Facies relationships and depositional 

history of south Florida carbonate mud banks. Geol. Soc. Amer. Abs. . 8:23-24. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.) Interior Florida 
Bay consists of shallow 1-3 m deep semicircular basins separated by a network of 
elongate shoals (banks). Low mangrove islands (keys) are developed along the bank 
crests. Geometry of Holocene carbonate sediments is based on data from probes and 
cores taken along profiles across several banks and keys. Comparison with surficial 
sediment characteristics permits recognition of facies in the cores. Facies relationships 
have been used to interpret depositional history and evolution of the banks and their 
associated keys. Mangrove peats developed on the irregular Pleistocene surface during 
post-Pleistocene sea level rise. As flooding continued subtidal Thalassia meadows 
became established on minor topographic highs. The dense grass trapped carbonate 
muds resulting in vertical accretion and development of the bank system variations in 
intertidal facies are associated with bank crests. Where tidal circulation is adequate 
and salinities are near normal marine the branching finger coral Porites divaricata 
forms dense mats. These corals are absent in the bay interior where salinities are 
lower and more variable. In these areas, mangrove seedlings become established along 
bank crests contributing to island development. Island margins may be characterized by 
shell berms and mangrove peats. Island interiors have marshes developed on supertidal 
storm washovers and shallow central ponds. These ephemeral ponds are filled with 
muds and have thin surficial blue-green algal mats. Facies evolution of Florida Bay 
banks provides an excellent model for shallow, low energy, humid climate carbonate 
platform sedimentation. 


1 976 

Layman, J. W. (1977) Acid insoluble residues of the carbonate sediments of Northwest 

Florida Bay, South Florida. M. S. Thesis. University of Toledo, Toledo, OH. 78 pp. 

Sixty-seven surface grab and core samples, collected from the carbonate sediment 
forming environment of northwest Florida Bay, were analyzed to determine the 
amounts, composition, textures and sedimentation patterns of acid insoluble residues. 
The characteristics of the acid insoluble residues and their sedimentation patterns were 
then related to ten depositional sub-environments which were determined and classified 
according to what are believed to be the dominant physical environmental controls: 
depth of water, tidal current activity and exposure to wave action. The tidal channels 
were divided into the outer, central and inner sub-environments. The mud banks were 
divided into the outer, Middle Ground, central and inner sub-environments, and the 
mainland shore face was divided into the Gulf exposed, outer and central sub¬ 
environments. The weighted average amounts of acid insoluble residue coarser than 8.0 
<j> ranged from 1.5% on the Gulf exposed shore face to 9.5% on the Middle Ground banks. 
The amount of sand-sized acid insoluble residue decreased eastward from 2.3% on the 
higher energy Middle Ground banks, which are exposed to the Gulf of Mexico, to 0.8% 
in the lower energy inner tidal channel sub-environment of Florida Bay. Silt-sized acid 
insoluble residues were highest on the banks and averaged approximately 5.5% for the 
outer, central and inner banks. The Middle Ground banks contained 7.2% silt-sized acid 
insoluble residue. Quartz was the dominant constituent of the acid insoluble residues and 
ranged in size from 0.0 to 8.0 <J>. Sponge spicules occurred as whole and fragmented 


221 



megascleres and microscleres and ranged in size from 1.5 $ (350 nm) to 8.0 4> (4 jim) 
long. Radiolaria were present in minor amounts and ranged in size from approximately 
3.0 to 6.0 4>. Quartz is transported from, the north, along the Gulf of Mexico nearshore 
zone and Cape Sable beaches, into northwest Florida Bay by longshore and flood tidal 
currents. Transport of quartz and other acid insoluble residue within the study area is 
primarily by tidal currents of which ebb tidal currents are more dominant. Sponge 
spicules and radiolaria are derived primarily from within the study area. However, 
some spicules and radiolaria could be derived from outside the study area and 
transported into the area by flood tidal currents from the west and ebb tidal currents 
from the east and southeast. A minor source of quartz, sponge spicules and radiolaria 
may be the Miami Oolite which forms the bedrock of Florida Bay. Sampling from 
Flamingo to East Cape Sable took place in 1976. 


1976 0 

McPherson, B. F., G. Y. Hendrix, H. Klein, and H. M. Tyus (1976) The environment of south 

Florida, a summary report. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 1011. 81 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] After 1900 men came in 
increasing numbers to south Florida and began extensive modification of the vast 
wilderness of swamps, forests, marshes, prairies, and bays. The original south Florida 
ecosystem that evolved over thousands of years gave way to a new three-part 
ecosystem which incorporated an agricultural component, an urban component, and a 
component of the original ecosystem that is largely undeveloped but still has been 
affected by man. These components are interrelated through the flow of energy and 
resources. The remaining natural component of the south Florida ecosystem includes 
freshwater and terrestrial systems such as ponds and sloughs, sawgrass marshes, wet 
prairies, hammock forests, bay heads, cypress forests, pine forests, mixed swamp 
forests, and dry prairies; and coastal systems such as bays, coral reefs, mangroves 
and saline marshes, and beaches and dunes. Fire, tropical storms, frost and cold 
weather, saltwater intrusion, and man also affect systems. Freshwater is a key 
environmental factor in that it not only affects a system directly but that it also 
affects other controlling environmental factors such as fire, soil, temperature, and 
saltwater intrusion. The coastal systems of south Florida are dependent on currents, 
tides, waves, and in most cases freshwater runoff to circulate and transport salts, 
nutrients, and other essential products. Freshwater runoff also dilutes seawater. 
Mangrove forests usually grow where freshwater runoff is greatest and salinity is 
seasonally reduced, whereas coral reefs occur in areas of little or no runoff and normal 
seawater salinity. In estuaries and bays, salinity varies during the year depending on 
the amount of runoff and evaporation, and is a major controlling factor on the 
distribution of organisms. The coastal systems are also affected by other 
environmental factors such as cold weather, water turbidity, and tropical storms. 
Tropical storms often alter coastal systems and are the major natural force that 
changes the distribution of mangrove forests. Juveniles of many marine species derive 
food and protection in estuaries and bays and thus require these habitats to complete 
their life cycles. Man has been altering the ecosystem of south Florida extensively for 
70 yrs. Wetlands originally occupied about 75% of south Florida, but through the years 
much of this land has been drained. In southeast Florida, drainage has lowered water 
levels as much as 1.5 to 1.8 m (5 to 6 ft) below the 1900 level and has disrupted the 
natural systems. Drainage reduces productive wetlands, promotes organic soil 
oxidation and damaging fires, and has permitted seawater intrusion in some areas of 
excessive water-table lowering. 


222 


1 976 

Odell, D. K., and E. D. Asper (1977) A summary of information derived from the recurrent 
mass stranding of a herd of Pseudorca crassidens (Cetacea: Delphinidae). Marine Mammal 
Stranding Workshop, Athens, GA, 10 - 12 August, 1977. 207-222. 

A herd of at least 29 false killer whales (Pseudorca crassidens) entered shallow water 
on the southwest coast of Florida on 22 July 1976. One died, 4 were taken into 
captivity after stranding and later died, and 24 returned to sea. On July 25, a herd of 
30 Pseudorca stranded on Loggerhead Key, Dry Tortugas, about 325 km south of the 
first site. At least some of the animals from the two standings were identical based on 
dorsal fin photographs. One of the Loggerhead Key animals died and the rest were 
forced back to sea. Three were found dead near Cape Sable, Everglades National Park, 
on 2 August. Twenty skeletons were recovered in the same area on August 28. Cape 
Sable is about 190 km ENE of the Dry . These animals were probably the same animals 
that were forced off Loggerhead Key. Body measurements, organ weights and 
reproductive data were collected from 6 animals that were necropsied. Blood data from 
34 animals indicate stress but were, in general, comparable to normal values for other 
small cetaceans. The cause(s) of the strandings were not determined. 


1976 0 

Smith, W. G., and H. H. Roberts (1976) Coastal change at Cape Sable, Monroe County, 
Florida. Louisiana State University Coastal Studies Institute. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] A report on 
shoreline change in the Everglades National Park indicates that the three points of Cape 
Sable are littoral accumulative forms of successively accumulated beach ridges 
consisting of predominantly molluscan shell debris. According to radiocarbon analysis, 
these ridges have been in their present position 1200 - 2000 yrs. Results reveal that 
older phases of coastal change exist inland from the three capes in the form of low 
carbonate mud ridges similar to those found along the present Florida Bay shoreline. 


1 976 

Videlock, S. L. (1983) The stratigraphy and sedimentation of Cluett Key, Florida Bay. M. S. 

Thesis. University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT. 161 pp. 

Cluett Key began developing very soon after sea level flooded the floor of Florida Bay 
some 4000 yrs ago. The island grew from a nucleus of supratidal sediment. Sediment 
accumulation was rapid in the west and northwest and slower in the east and southeast. 
Deposition has been fairly continuous since the island began. Cluett Key may still be 
accreting (migrating?) to the southeast today. Sediments of Cluett Key are composed 
largely of unstable phases of calcium carbonate, aragonite and magnesium calcite. The 
stable phases, calcite and dolomite, are responsible, on an average, for less than 15% 
of the mineralogic composition. This suggests that under present Florida Bay 
environmental conditions aragonite and magnesium calcite are "stable." The mineralogic 
composition of offshore sediments differs from that of onshore sediments. Offshore 
sediments contain a greater amount of aragonite and almost no dolomite. This could be 
due to either differences in the fauna and flora between the two locations and/or 
diagenetic changes that may be occurring. Aragonite needles are not responsible for the 
bulk of lime mud sediment on Cluett Key. Sediment here is mostly molluscan and 
foraminiferal in origin. For the most part, magnesium calcite/calcite ratios remain 
fairly constant with depth. However, many cores exhibit a sudden increase in the ratio 
at an average depth range of 120 - 150 cm. The reason for this increase may be 
related to grain size. This horizon may be coarser and have a higher permeability than 
the surrounding sediment. Consequently, water may circulate too rapidly for diagenetic 
changes to take place. Fauna present in sediments taken some distance from the island 
is similar yet larger in size than offshore fauna located closer to Cluett Key. This may 
affect the grain size of the sediment at each particular location and could eventually 


223 


effect diagenesis. Porosity of island cores is just slightly less than the porosity of 
offshore cores. Permeability increases, on Cluett Key, from the east side to the west 
side. Salinity values increase from west to east. Likewise, concentrations of 
magnesium and calcium in subsurface water increase from the west side to the east. 
The formation of dolomite on Cluett Key is apparently related to some island controlled 
processes. These exact processes have yet to be discovered. Whether dolomite is still 
being formed today or was formed some time in the past and has now stopped is not 
known. Sampling took place during 1976. 


1976 0 

Woelkeriing, W. J. (1976) South Florida benthic marine algae. Sedimenta V. Comparative 
Sedimentology Laboratory, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This paper 
provides illustrated keys to the genera of green, brown, and red algae and to the genera 
and species of blue-green algae commonly found in marine benthic communities of 
Florida with emphasis on those forms found in the Florida Bay portion. A glossary of 
morphological terms used in the keys, the literature pertaining to Florida marine algae, 
brief comments on marine algae habitats and communities and instructions for the 
collection, preservation, and examination of algae material were included. 


1976 0 

Zieman, J. C. (1976) The ecological effects of physical damage from motorboats. Aquatic 
Bot. . 2:127-39. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Observation has shown that beds 
of turtle grass, Thalassia testudinum, although highly productive, do not recover 
rapidly following physical disturbance of the rhizome system. In shallow waters the 
most common form of rhizome disturbance is from the propellers of motor boats. In 
turtle grass beds which are otherwise thriving, tracks resulting from propellers have 
been observed to persist from 2 to 5 years. The proportion of fine sediment 
components is reduced in the sediments from the boat tracks, and the pH and Eh are 
reduced in comparison to the surrounding grass bed. Damage of this type is most likely 
to occur in the shallow passes between islands and keys. These areas are also the 
slowest to recover due to the rapid tidal currents present in the shallow passes. 

1976 - 1977, 1979 - 1981 

Walker, N. D. (1982) Physical responses of southern Florida and northern Bahama lagoon 
waters to severe cold air outbreaks and effects on hermatypic coral reefs. M. S. Thesis. 
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA. 114 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Major 
mortalities of southern Florida and northern Bahama reef corals during recent winters 
suggest that chilled water masses may influence their development. This research was 
undertaken to investigate the regional extent, duration, and frequency of water mass 
chilling and preferential routes for offshore water movement. Temperature infrared 
satellite data (NOAA-5 and NOAA-6), in situ water temperatures from eastern Florida 
Bay, local meteorological data, and a numerical heat flux model were incorporated in 
the analyses. Study results indicated that southern Florida and northern Bahama lagoons 
provide less than optimal environmental conditions during winter for reef growth and 
development. Shallow bays of southern Florida chill below the 16°C thermal stress 
threshold for reef corals several times each winter. The longest observed residence 
time for sub-16°C water in Florida Bay was 12 days during January 1981. The present 
distribution of reef corals can be attributed to cold air outbreak chilling of shallow 
lagoon waters and their offshelf transport routes. 


224 



1976 - 1979 

Thue, E. B., E. S. Rutherford, and D. G. Buker (1983) Age, growth, and mortality of the 
common snook, Centropomus undecimalis, in Everglades National Park, Florida. Rep. T-683. 
South Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 33 pp. 

A study was made of age, growth and mortality of 325 snook, Centropomus undecimalis 
(Bloch), collected from sport fishermen in Everglades National Park from May 1976 

through December 1979. Fish sampled ranged in length from 284 - 940 mm FL (x = 
643 ± 11 mm) and in weight from 0.7 - 11.6 kg (x = 3.03 ± 0.17 kg). Females ranged 
in length from 464 - 940 mm (x = 680 ± 25 mm) and in weight from 1.0 - 11.6 kg (x" 
= 3.64 ± 0.49 kg). Males ranged in length from 284 - 889 mm (x = 632 ± 14 mm) and 
in weight from 0.7 - 7.2 kg (x = 2.84 ± 0.18 kg). Mean lengths of fish were largest in 
spring and smallest in winter. There were no differences in mean length among areas of 
capture. Snook were aged by scale annuli. Annulus formation occurred in spring (March 
- May). Ages of fish were mainly four- and five-yr olds. Recruitment to the fishery 
began at age two and was completed by age six. The oldest fish sampled was eight 
years old. The overall sex ratio favored males 3/1, but the ratio decreased steadily 
with age. The mean age of females was significantly greater than the mean age of 
males. There were no differences in mean age of fish among areas of capture. Mean 
calculated growth of all snook was 375 mm FL in the first year and 57 - 90 mm FL 
thereafter. Females were significantly larger than males in calculated mean lengths at 
ages one through four. Calculated fish lengths at age differed among areas of capture. 
Fish taken from the Whitewater Bay - Coot Bay area were larger at ages one through 
four than fish of the same age taken from the north Florida Bay - Cape Sable area. 
Sexual differences in length-weight relationship were noted. Females weighed more at a 
given length then males. Annual mortality rate of all fully recruited fish for the period 
1976 - 1979 was 78%. Female mortality was lower than male mortality. Conditional 
fishing mortality was twice as high as conditional natural mortality for males but was 
the same for females. Conditional natural mortality and exploitation ratio was higher 
for males than for females. 

1976 - 1981 

Dunson, W. A., and F. J. Mazzotti (1989) Salinity as a limiting factor in the distribution of 
reptiles in Florida Bay: a theory for the estuarine origin of marine snakes and turtles. 
Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 
44(1 ):229-44. 

Salinity is hypothesized to be the major abiotic factor limiting the colonization of 
Florida Bay by estuarine reptiles. This premise is supported by the small number of 
species of reptiles found in the bay in comparison with freshwater, the distinct 
osmoregulatory specializations of the few estuarine specialists that occur there, and a 
remarkable cline in the ability to tolerate seawater found among modern-day estuarine 
and coastal reptiles. This latter cline in osmoregulatory abilities is believed to 
represent a model of the evolutionary stages through which pelagic snakes and turtles 
have passed in developing adaptations for life in the open sea. Florida Bay is an 
especially useful site for the study of such adaptations since it is the only known 
location in this hemisphere where three specialized estuarine reptiles are sympatric: 
the American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus), the diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys 
terrapin), and the mangrove snake (Nerodia clarkii compressicauda). Small populations 
of freshwater turtles and the alligator also occur in tidal creeks along the northern 
shore. Recent advances in the study of turtles suggest that the single most important 
factor in determining tolerance to high salinity is the amount of seawater swallowed 
incidentally with food ingestion. This finding needs to be extended to other reptiles to 
test the hypothesis that fish eaters, such as snakes, that do not crush or bite chunks 


225 



from their food have reduced incidental drinking. This could explain how the mangrove 
snake can survive in estuaries without a salt gland, whereas the sympatric terrapin 
possesses a sizable lachrymal salt gland. We hypothesize that the following represent 
major transitional stages in the gradual evolution of marine snakes and turtles from 
freshwater ancestors: (1) utilization of behavioral osmoregulation to avoid salinities 
that cannot be directly tolerated; (2) a reduction in net salt uptake and water loss and 
in incidental drinking of seawater while feeding; (3) the first appearance of 
rudimentary salt-excreting glands; (4) hypertrophy of salt glands as dictated by rates 
of salt uptake, in concert with the development of a specialized external morphology 
suited for a pelagic life. 

1976 - 1982 

Frohring, P. C., and J. A. Kushlan (1986) Nesting status and colony site variability of 
laughing gulls in southern Florida. Fla. Field Naturalist. 14(1): 1 -28. 

Laughing gulls (Larus atricilla) used twenty-six nesting sites in Florida Bay, from 1976 
through 1982, breeding from mid-April to August. Colony site use and nesting numbers 
were highly variable, and nesting success appeared to be poor. Fewer than half of the 
known nesting sites were used in any year. Limiting factors included flooding and food 
availability. We hypothesize that the southern Florida nesting population may be of 
relatively recent origin resulting from repeated colonization by birds from further 
north. It appears to be supported primarily by the availability of sanitary landfills and 
agricultural fields, and so may be affected as these types of land uses are scaled back 
in southern Florida. 

1976 - 1982 

Kushlan, J. A., and P. C. Frohring (1985) Decreases in the brown pelican population in 
southern Florida. Colonial Waterbirds . 8(2):83-95. 

Since 1970, the population of the brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) in Florida has 
been thought to be stable. However, one local population, in extreme southern Florida, 
experienced a 40% decrease from 1977 through 1981. An evaluation of the precision 
of the long-term statewide aerial pelican survey showed that even the complete loss of 
this local population would not be statistically recognizable on a statewide basis. We 
also found that censuses conducted in other than the month of peak nesting have a 40- 
60% error. We hypothesize that a decrease in food availability in Florida Bay 
precipitated this decrease in pelican numbers. The status of brown pelican populations 
has been evaluated on geopolitical rather than biological boundaries. The conservation of 
sensitive species requires consideration of local population trends, especially those 
that may represent special genetic stocks. This study was based on monthly aerial 
censuses conducted from 1976 to 1982. 


1977 0 

Lidz, B. H., and P. R. Rose (1989) Diagnostic foraminiferal assemblages of Florida Bay and 
adjacent shallow waters: a comparison. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. 
Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1):399-418. 

[PAPER BASED ON WORK PUBLISHED IN 1977.] This paper describes foraminiferal data 
that distinguish Florida Bay from the nearby open-circulation platform margin and 
shows general trends in a foraminiferal population across a platform. Results of this 
study of benthic foraminifera in the Bay indicated that: the bay is a specialized 
restricted platform interior environment; its fauna was divisible into three subfaunas: 
nearshore, mudbank, and 'lake'; substrate, currents, wave intensity, and wave 
direction affected local distribution but do not alter regional patterns; and faunal 
assemblages rather than individual species of foraminifera were diagnostic 
environmental indicators as many species range over several faunal zones. Samples 


226 





were collected by hand from the upper few centimeters of bottom sediment from 46 
locations selected along traverses which cross the various types of depositional 
environments within Florida Bay. Three traverses (39 samples) transect the Bay; and 
one traverse (7 samples) crosses the platform margin. Foraminifera greater than 62 
pm were identified under the binocular microscope from approximately 10 cc of 
washed material, and their abundance was estimated. This paper was excerpted, with 
modifications, from an earlier publication by the authors in 1977. 


1977 0 

Mitterer, R. N., and P. W. Carter (1977) Some analytical and experimental data on 
organic-carbonate interaction. Proc., 3rd Internatl. Coral Reef Symp., Miami, FL. 
2(Geology): 541-48. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] There are basic differences, in 
general, between the organic matter of carbonate and non-carbonate sediments. 
Analyses of sediments from the Flower Garden Reef, offshore Texas, show that the 
carbonate fraction is characterized by (1) coarse size, (2) less total organic matter, 
(3) a greater proportion of the organic matter as amino acids, and (4) a predominance 
of aspartic acid compared to the noncarbonate fraction. The non-carbonate fine fraction 
has a lesser proportion of amino acids with glycine and alanine predominant. This 
contrast is consistent with the suggestion that an aspartic acid-rich proteinaceous 
fraction plays an influential role in calcification. To further elucidate this role, soluble 
fulvic acid extracted from the <62 pm fraction of Florida Bay sediment was titrated 
with Ca solutions in the presence of pH and calcium-specific ion electrodes. The organic 
matter, which has an aspartic acid content of about 40%, was able to bind Ca. 
Additional experiments confirmed the metal binding capability of the organic matter. 
The characteristic occurrence of aspartic acid-rich organic matter in carbonate 
sediments of various types (skeletal and non-skeletal), the selective absorption of this 
organic matter to carbonate surfaces, ant the ability of the organic matter to bind Ca 
suggest that it exerts a strong influence on carbonate geochemistry in the marine 
environment. 


1977 0 

Perkins, R. D. (1977) Quaternary sedimentation in south Florida. Part II. Depositional 

framework of Pleistocene rocks in south Florida. US Geol. Surv. Mem. . 147:131-97. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Detailed stratigraphic analysis of 
the Pleistocene of South Florida, based on 56 measured sections, indicates that these 
deposits are divisible into five marine units separated by regional discontinuity 
surfaces. Marine units are correlated with eustatic high sea-level stands and 
discontinuity surfaces with subaerial exposure during low stands. Criteria for 
recognizing discontinuity surfaces include: (1) vadose sediment, (2) land-plant root 
structures, (3) laminated crusts, (4) diagenetic soilstones, (5) soils and soil breccias, 
(6) solution surfaces, (7) bored surfaces, and (8) freshwater limestones. Discontinuity 
surfaces are often found to be intraformational when related to formal stratigraphic 
designations presently in use. The Fort Thompson and Anastasia Formations contain four 
such surfaces, the Key Largo Limestone contains two, and the Miami Limestone contains 
two. When considered in detail, discontinuity surfaces in South Florida are found to 
vary in the amount of time they represent and the degree to which they are developed 
and preserved. The five marine units recognized in this study have been informally 
termed from oldest to youngest, Q1 through Q5 (Q for Quaternary). Each stratigraphic 
unit is analyzed from the following viewpoints: (1) role of pre-unit topography, (2) 
isopach patterns, (3) lithofacies patterns, (4) ecologic facies patterns, and (5) 
interpretation of depositional environments. Pre-unit paleotopography strongly 
influenced isopach thicknesses and lithofacies patterns within individual Pleistocene 


227 



units, although to a lesser degree upward in the section as paleotopography became 
more subdued. A marine embayment, occupied by the present position of Lake 
Okeechobee and the Florida Everglades, was bounded by topographically higher areas to 
the north and west. These topographic highs, mantled with older Pliocene and Miocene 
elastic sediments, served as sources for detritus throughout Pleistocene deposition. 
During Q1 deposition, quartz sandstones with admixtures of molluscan debris clearly 
reflect the proximity of these topographic highs. More open marine conditions persisted 
in the embayment between the highs where arenaceous, mollusk fragment packstones 
are found interbedded with fossiliferous quartz sandstones. Important faunal elements 
within these embayment sediments include: Chione cancellata, miliolids, peneroplids, 
Manicina, Porites, and Schizoporella. In the northeastern portion of the study area, Q1 
sediments are represented by arenaceous, mollusk-fragment grainstones deposited as 
barrier-beach and beach-dune sediments, and fine-grained quartz sands (lagoonal 
sediments). Lithofacies patterns within the Q2 unit are essentially the same as those 
found in the Q1 unit, except that molluscan packstone increases in the northern part of 
the embayment to the exclusion of quartz sandstone. Generally, the fauna of the Q2 unit 
is similar to that of the Q1 unit. However, more open shelf conditions are suggested by 
scattered occurrences of the coral, Montastrea, along the southern margin of the study 
area. The proportion of carbonates to terrigenous sediments increased markedly during 
deposition of the Q3 unit. Arenaceous, mollusk-fragment packstone deposited in the 
northern portion of the embayment grades southward into foraminiferal, mollusk- 
fragment packstone and grainstone that are relatively free of quartz. Fossiliferous 
quartz sandstones persisted in proximity to the topographic highs. A highly coralline 
facies composed of grainstone and packstone was deposited along the southern margin 
of the study area and marks the first appearance of large numbers of the hermatypic 
corals, Montastrea, Diploria, Porites astreoides, and Porites porites in association 
with encrusting red algae and Halimeda plates. Barrier-beach and lagoonal 
sedimentation persisted in the northeastern portion of the study area where mollusk- 
fragment grainstone, quartz sand, and sandstone were deposited. The upper contact of 
the Q3 unit represents one of the most pronounced of all the Pleistocene discontinuity 
surfaces. Pre-unit topography prior to Q4 deposition was greatly subdued as a result of 
Q3 sedimentation, especially along the southern margin of the study area where coral 
growth resulted in appreciable constructional topography. Maximum relief prior to Q3 
deposition was greater than 120 ft (37 m), as contrasted with approximately 30 ft (9 
m) prior to Q4 deposition. During Q4 deposition, detrital influx was greatly reduced in 
the western part of the study area, but continued to persist in the northeastern part in 
the form of quartz sand and sandstone deposited as a broad, arcuate shoal. To the east 
of this shoal, barrier-beach and lagoonal sedimentation prevailed. Within the 
embayment, mollusk-fragment packstone, wackestone, and quartz sandstone grade 
southward into highly burrowed peneroplid, miliolid, pellet packstone and grainstone, 
which locally contain abundant bryozoans (Schizoporella). This pelletal facies grades 
along the southern edge of the study area into a highly coralline, red algal packstone and 
grainstone facies that is characterized by Montastrea, Diploria, Porites, Halimeda, and 
encrusting red algae. Paleotopography developed on the upper surface of the Q4 unit 
gave rise to a relatively featureless, gently seaward dipping platform on which Q5 
sediments were deposited. In the northeastern part of the study area, arenaceous, 
mollusk fragment grainstone, fossiliferous sandstone, and fine-grained quartz sand 
were deposited as barrier-beach-lagoonal sediments that grade westward into quartz 
sandstones derived from terrigenous sediments shed off the nearby topographic high. 
During Q5 time, the area now occupied by Lake Okeechobee was the site of deposition of 
mollusk-fragment wackestone in what is believed to have been a restricted marine bay 
as suggested by local occurrences of Rangia cuniata and oysters. Southward along the 
present-day Atlantic coastal ridge, the barrier-beach-lagoonal complex gives way to 
an oolitic facies composed of arenaceous, oolith, pellet grainstone and packstone, 


228 


believed to represent tidal-bar deposits. Another discrete oolitic tidal-bar belt was 
formed in the area now occupied by the lower Florida Keys. In contrast to the northern 
tidal-bar belt, these oolitic deposits are essentially quartz free and contain less mud 
(predominantly grainstone). In the area between the two tidal-bar belts of Q5 age, a 
highly coraline facies is found similar to those developed during Q3 and Q4 deposition. 
The environment of deposition favored for this coralline facies, as well as those of Q3 
and Q4 age, is that of a migrating sand-shoal-patch-reef complex. This migrating shoal 
may have been initiated at a paleotopographic break in slope on the outer shelf margin 
and does not require a seaward barrier reef for its inception. Pelletal packstone and 
grainstone accumulated in sheltered water behind the sand-shoal-patch-reef complex 
and the oolite bars. These sediments are usually highly burrowed and contain miliolids, 
peneroplids and Schizoporella. Considered as a whole, the Pleistocene record of South 
Florida may be thought of as simple infilling of pre-Pleistocene paleotopography during 
repeated marine transgressions, modified by subaerial exposure and the production of 
discontinuity surfaces during low sea-level stands. 


1977 0 

Rosenfeld, J. K. (1977) Nitrogen diagenesis in nearshore anoxic sediments. Ph. D. 

Dissertation. Yale University, New Haven, CT. 200 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Nitrogen is the limiting nutrient 
in the marine coastal environment and one of the major processes affecting its 
distribution is exchange across the sediment-water interface. Therefore, it is 
important to understand the chemistry of hydrogen compounds in sediments. In anoxic 
sediments, the most important processes of nitrogen diagenesis are the decomposition 
of nitrogen-containing organic compounds and the subsequent production of ammonium. 
Changes in the distribution and nature of ammonium and organic nitrogen occur with 
depth in the sediment column and the extent of the change is controlled by the 
geochemical environment of the sediments. In order to better understand the anoxic 
portion of the sedimentary nitrogen cycle, diagenetic changes have been studied in 
different sediment systems (clays vs. carbonates, organic-rich vs. organic poor) and in 
sediments of similar mineralogy, which exhibit different chemical properties (for 
example, different amounts of sulfate reduction). Sediment cores were taken in Long 
Island Sound, Florida Bay, and Pettaquamscutt River, Rl, and changes in the nitrogen 
chemistry, of both the intertidal water and the sediment solids, were measured. 
Ammonium production was found to be related to sulfate production, although once all 
the sulfate is reduced, ammonium is still produced by other process of organic matter 
decomposition. In addition, in Long Island Sound sediments, nitrate reduction is 
generally complete by a depth of 3 cm. Organic nitrogen decreases with depth in the 
sediment column and is utilized preferentially relative to organic carbon. Similarly, 
amino acids and amino sugars are utilized preferentially during diagenesis relative to 
total organic nitrogen. However, the individual acidic and neutral amino acids appear to 
be utilized equally during this stage of organic matter decomposition. Comparison of the 
results from the different cores has pointed out the important role bioturbation plays in 
controlling the chemistry of both the interstitial water and the sediment solids. In the 
laboratory, the processes of ammonium and amino acid adsorption, organic matter 
decomposition, and ammonium diffusion in natural sediments have been studied. There 
appears to be a 'dynamic equilibrium' between the amounts of dissolved, exchangeable, 
and fixed ammonium found in sediments. In Long Island Sound sediments, more than half 
of the ammonium produced by organic matter decomposition is adsorbed by the 
sediment, while the rest is dissolved in the interstitial water. The proportion of amino 
acids adsorbed by sediments is greater than the proportion of ammonium adsorbed and 
in clay sediments, the organic matter, rather than the clay minerals, is responsible for 
most of the ammonium and amino acid adsorption. The organic matter decomposition 
experiments have shown that the rates of sulfate reduction and ammonium and 


229 


phosphate production decrease with decreasing temperature and increasing depth in the 
sediment column. The diffusion experiments confirmed that the ammonium diffusion 
coefficient in the fine-grained sediments is approximately twice as great as the sulfate 
diffusion coefficient. Stoichiometry and kinetic diagenetic models have been used to 
predict the C/N ratio of the decomposing organic matter, the rates of ammonium 
production and the loss of organic nitrogen in the sediment column. These models only 
utilize changes in the interstitial water chemistry and it has been shown that the values 
predicted by the models agree well with the values actually measured in sediment cores 
and laboratory experiments. 


1977 

Roberts, H. H., L. J. Rouse, N. D. Walker, and J. H. Hudson (1982) Cold-water stress in 

Florida Bay and northern Bahamas: a product of winter cold-air outbreaks. J. Sed. Petrol. . 

52( 1): 145-55. 

During January 1977, three consecutive cold fronts crossed south Florida and the 
northern Bahamas which depressed shallow-water temperatures below the lethal limit 
for most reef corals. Digital thermal infrared data acquired by the NOAA-5 
meteorological satellite, in situ water temperatures, and meteorological data were 
used to study the thermal evolution of Florida Bay and Bahama Bank waters. The third 
and most important frontal system depressed Florida Bay water below 16°C, a thermal 
stress threshold for most reef corals, for 8 days. The minimum water temperature 
recorded in situ was 12.6°C. Satellite data suggest that some Florida Bay coastal 
waters were at least 1°C cooler than water at this site. Cold-water plumes detected on 
satellite imagery suggests that offshelf or offbank movement of cold, dense water 
follows bathymetry-controlled routes. Absence of viable shelf reefs opposite tidal 
passes supports this contention. Coral mortality at Dry Tortugas was up to 91% during 
the 1977 event. Coral and fish kills were also reported from other parts of the Florida 
Reef Tract and northern Bahamas. Study results show that cold-water stress 
conditions can exist over vast shallow-water areas and have residence times of 
several days These observations suggest that aperiodic chilling processes have a 
limiting influence on reef community development throughout the Florida Reef Tract and 
northern Bahamas. 


1977 

Roberts, H. H., L. J. Rouse, and N. D. Walker (1983) Evolution of cold water-stress 
conditions in high-altitude reef systems: Florida Reef Tract and the Bahama Banks. Carib. J. 
Sci. . 19(1 -2):55-60. 

Thermal depression of shallow bank and bay waters accompanying the passage of 
severe cold fronts can stress high latitude coral reef systems, such as those of the 
Florida Reef Tract and northern Bahama Banks. Laboratory and field experiments 
suggest that sustained temperatures below 16°C are detrimental to most reef-building 
corals. Time-series satellite imagery provides a data base for assessing the thermal 
variability of waters interfacing with reef systems. Digital thermal infrared data 
acquired by the NOAA-5 meteorological satellite were used to study thermal evolution 
of Florida Bay and Bahama Bank waters during a succession of three cold-air outbreaks 
(January 1977). Effects from the third and most important of these frontal systems 
persisted from 19 to 26 January. Northerly winds (to 15 m s* 1 ) accompanied by cold, 
dry air caused extreme losses of sensible and latent heat from these shallow waters of 
limited heat capacity. As a result of this process, Florida Bay, Little Bahama Bank, and 
Great Bahama Bank experienced water temperatures blow 16°C for 5 days. Florida Bay 
waters reached a temperature minimum of 12.9°C, as determined from satellite data 
and confirmed by in situ field measurements. Water temperatures in the Bay remained 
under the 16°C lethal limit for corals for 8 days. At Dry Tortugas 91% of the shallow 


230 




Acropora cervicornis community was reported killed during this abnormally cold event. 
These studies indicate that the temperature of subtropical bank and Bay waters is 
subjected to depression below 16°C accompanying the outbreak of unusually cold air. 
This superchilled water can have a residence time of days. The cooling process creates 
water masses that are out of density equilibrium with warmer ocean water. Offshelf 
movement of the cold, dense water occurs at particular sites, as shown by time-series 
satellite data. The absence of coral reefs opposite tidal passes in the Florida Keys is 
attributed to this process, which has probably limited development of the entire reef 
tract. 


1977 0 

Roberts, H. H., T. Whelan, and W. G. Smith (1977) Holocene sedimentation at Cape Sable, 

South Florida. Sedimentary Petrol. . 18:25-60. 

A regionally distinct mosaic of sedimentary environments including beaches and beach 
ridges which formed under relatively high-energy conditions through low energy, tide- 
dominated environments to quiescent inland lakes and ponds, exists at Cape Sable, south 
Florida. Environments of deposition from the sandy capes inland are: (1) shell beaches 
and beach ridges; (2) black mangrove mudflats; (3) ponded mudflats; (4) exposed 
mudflats; (5) Lake Ingraham; (6) coastal levees and supratidal plain; and (7) ephemeral 
ponds. With exception of the beaches and beach ridges, sediments of the other 
environments are dominantly calcareous muds and silts and represent a depositional 
history related to frequency of tidal inundation and storms. Of the three capes exposed 
roughly from northwest to southeast at Cape Sable, radiocarbon dating shows that 
Northwest Cape formed in the present position or possibly migrated to it 1980 ± 100 
years BP, while Middle Cape and East Cape data from 1610 ± 100 BP and 1230 ± 95 
years BP. Relict shorelines features, coastal levees, on the supratidal plain indicate an 
episode of coastal progradation which started 2280 ± 100 years BP and apparently 
ended about 1560 ± 80 years BP. The entire column of Holocene carbonate sediments in 
the cape area rests on a thin, intermittent basal peat which dates 4950 ± 120 years 
BP. Cores through the supratidal plain reveal a basal carbonate-mud sequence much like 
subtidal sediments of modern Florida Bay. This unit has a typical marine carbonate 
mineral suite, numerous shallow-marine mollusks, and an abundance of Thalassia root 
burrows. An intermediate unit characterized by marine-brackish carbonate sediments 
with algal laminations is overlain by massive aragonitic supratidal silts and silty clays. 
The entire sequence is capped by a dark, highly organic zone representative of the 
coastal levee and intervening algal-flat sediments. Trace quantities of dolomite and 
substantial amounts of low-Mg calcite found throughout the cores are considered to be 
of detrital origin. Localized surface concentrations of dolomite associated with the 
coastal levees may have a mixed in-situ and detrital origin. Investigation of the 
extractable organic matter in the intertidal facies of cores through the three prominent 
coastal levees indicates that diagenesis of organic matter has systematically occurred 
from the youngest to the oldest levee. Fatty alcohols and total hydrocarbons increase 
with time while fatty acids decrease. Partial decarboxylation and chemical reduction of 
fatty acids can occur within the time interval of 750 yrs between the oldest and 
youngest coastal levees. Geochemistry of interstitial water from the supratidal-plain 
cores indicated a general increase in chlorinity from the youngest to the oldest coastal 
levee. Chlorinity levels drop at the base of all three cores analyzed which may be 
related to fresher ground water influence from the Miami limestone. Ratios of Ca, Mg, 
and Sr to chloride are remarkably constant throughout the cores. Higher relative Sr ion 
concentration in the core from the intermediate coastal levees may indicate a subtle 
dissolution of aragonite. In general, evidence of diagenesis in these carbonate sediments 
is not readily apparent. 


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1977 0 

Schold, G. P. (1977) Analysis of an indigenous foraminiferal biocenosis from Buttonwood 

Sound, Florida Bay. M. S. Thesis. Duke University, Durham, NC. 87 pp. 

(DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Samples of Thalassia testudinum 
(Konig) and short cores of sediment were collected over short lateral and vertical 
distances in Buttonwood Sound to study distribution patterns of the indigenous 
foraminiferal biocenosis. A rope cross, consisting of rays 50 meters in length, was 
staked to the bottom. Samples were collected at intervals of 5, 50, 500, and 5,000 cm 
from the center of the cross along each ray. Very few foraminifera were found to be 
living on T. testudinum and consequently the quantitative analysis was essentially 
restricted to those foraminifera that were living either on or within the sediment. 
Species diversity indices and factor-vector analysis were used to analyze the 
foraminiferal biocenosis. Factor-vector analysis is a mathematical model used to 
determine causal relationships existing between species (R-mode analysis) and between 
samples (Q-mode analysis). Ten vectors were selected in the R-mode factor-vector 
analysis that accounted for approximately 94% of the total information contained in the 
data matrix. The average Shannon-Wiener species diversity index accounting for the 
foraminifera living in the upper 2 cm of the sediment cores was 2.48, whereas the 
average species diversity index in the next lower 14 cm of sediment from the same 
cores was 2.12. Archaias angulatus (Fichtel and Moll) was the only numerically 
dominant species in the study area. Species diversity indices suggest that the 
environment of the study area was relatively unstable, resulting in broad niches 
populated by a few abundant species. Variations in species diversity were attributable 
to the distribution of a large number of rare species. The growth density of T. 
testudinum might have been in part responsible for the rather uniform pattern of 
species diversity. Thalassia testudinum traps sedimentary particles of a size that 
depends on its density, thus producing a somewhat homogenous substrate. Because the 
rope cross was positioned in an area characterized by a fairly constant growth density 
of T. testudinum, distribution of the various sizes of sediment was very similar 
throughout the study area to account for the variation in biotic/abiotic response that 
was by both R-mode and Q-mode factor-vector analysis. 


1977 0 

Steinen, R. P., R. B. Halley and S. L. Videlock (1977) Holocene dolomite locality in Florida 

Bay. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. . 61(5):833. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Dolomitic mud 
has been identified in the unlithified subsurface Holocene sediments recovered from 
Cluett Key, Florida Bay. The dolomite is in the lower one third to one-half of the 
slightly greater than 3-m thick carbonate mud, sand, and peat accumulation. In this 
interval the dolomite is estimated to comprise up to 40% of the sediment and is present 
as dolomite grains and rhombs smaller than 2 jx. The dolomite is poorly ordered and 
calcium-rich (Ca 0 56 _ 0 60 Mg 0 400 44 C0 3 ). A second type of dolomite is stoichiometric 
and is in small amounts (less than 50%) in some samples. This type of dolomite is 
believed to be similar to the detrital dolomite identified by earlier workers in Florida 
Bay. Dolomite is common in cores from Cluett Key, but is absent or in insignificant 
amounts in the adjacent subtidal mudbanks that surround the inland. The dolomitic island 
mud is underlain by peat with a 14 C age of 3879 ± 70 yrs BP. The dolomite is 
completely unlithified and lacks cementation features associated with supratidal 
dolomites from elsewhere in South Florida and the Bahamas. It appears in both 
supratidal and subtidal (subaqueous). The origin of this dolomite is currently under 
investigation. Its distribution suggests a relation with some island process, most likely 
the formation and trapping of brackish and hypersaline ground waters in the low- 
permeability (10 md average) island muds. Brackish ground water (0 to 30 %o total 


232 



dissolved solids) is present beneath the topographic highs (up to 0.5 m above sea level) 
of the island. This water supports a variety of hardwoods and grasses. Hypersaline 
ground water (90 to 130 %o) is present beneath low elevations (within 0.1 m of sea 
level) where water is ponded intermittently. Bay water ranges between 30 and 50 %o 
during the year. The areal distribution, stratigraphy, abundance, chemistry, and grain 
size suggest this dolomite to be of Holocene age. Although the complex hydrochemical 
setting requires further study, the presence of this dolomite mud may offer an 
alternative to dolomitization models requiring high permeabilities and rapid water 
movement. 


1977 0 

Steinker, D. C. (1977) Foraminiferal studies in tropical carbonate environments: South 

Florida and Bahamas. Fla. Sci. . 40(1):46-61. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Those who seek to understand 
ancient carbonate rocks must first pursue knowledge of modern carbonate depositional 
environments. Those who study modern carbonates in tropical areas quickly learn that 
plants and animals exert significant influences upon the depositional environment, 
affecting the sedimentary framework. The foraminifera are important both as members 
of the biota and as skeletal constituents of carbonate sediments in areas such as South 
Florida and the Bahamas. Most studies of modern foraminifers from the South Florida- 
Bahama region have concentrated on distributions among sediment samples, with living 
and dead populations distinguished on the basis of rose bengal stain. Rose bengal is found 
to be an unreliable indicator of living specimens and methods of direct observation are 
suggested for the recognition of live foraminifers. Generally, a larger living population 
is found on marine vegetation than in the sediments of those areas. The assemblage 
among the bottom sediments commonly is sorted by waves and currents and does not 
necessarily accurately reflect the biocoenosis of an area. Attempts must be made to 
discriminate between those factors of the environment that influence the distribution of 
living populations and those that determine the thanatocoenosis in the sediments. More 
biologically oriented investigations are necessary for a better understanding of the 
foraminifera in their natural habitats. Such investigations should include both field 
studies and laboratory cultures. 


1977 0 

Vander Kooi, V. (1977) Paleoenvironmental history of eastern Florida Bay based on 
foraminiferida. M. S. Thesis. University of Akron, Akron, OH. 172 pp. 

[NO COPY OF THE PAPER AVAILABLE.] 

1977 - 1978 

Davis, G. E., D. S. Baughman, J. D. Chapman, D. MacArthur, and A. H. Pierce (1978) 
Mortality associated with declawing stone crabs, Menippe mercenaria. Rep. T-522. South 
Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 23 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This study was 
designed to measure the mortality of declawing stone crabs, Menippe mercenaria, using 
standard commercial techniques under laboratory conditions, as a precursor to a field 
investigation. From 1977 to 1978, 201 stone crabs were collected by traps in Florida 
Bay, returned to the lab and maintained in aquaria. Of 101 crabs that had both claws 
removed, 47 died and 28 of 100 single claw amputees died. Declawing wound width was 
significantly correlated with survival. Instantaneous crab mortality from declawing 
wounds of commercial fishermen ranged from 23 to 51%. 


233 



1977 - 1978 

Hall, R. J., T. E. Kaiser, W. B. Robertson, and P. C. Patty (1979) Organochlorine residues in 
eggs of the endangered American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus). Bull. Environ. Contam. 
Toxicol. . 23:87-90. 

Most of the 27 species and subspecies of surviving crocodilians have declining 
populations and 22 of them are considered to be severely endangered. The US population 
of the American crocodile is no exception; it probably numbers between 100 and 300 
individuals. Nests of the species have been regularly surveyed by the staff of the 
Everglades National Park. Our sample consists of eggs that remained in nests after the 
hatching of broods and of one clutch laid in captivity by an unmated female. Analysis of 
the 1977 samples for organochlorine contaminants has permitted a detailed examination 
of their contaminant loads and has allowed comparisons with a small sample analyzed in 
1972. 

1977 - 1980 

Kushlan, J. A., and F. J. Mazzotti (1989) Historic and present distribution of the American 
crocodile in Florida. J. Herpetology . 23(1):1-7. 

The historic and recent distribution of the American crocodile ( Crocodylus acutus) in 
Florida is from Vero Beach and Tampa south to the lower Florida Keys. Surveys 
covered the entire coastal zone, concentrating in Florida Bay from Key Largo to Cape 
Sable. Standardized surveys from power boat, canoe, fixed wing aircraft and 
helicopter took place from July 1977 to September 1980. The nesting distribution is 
southern Biscayne Bay and northeastern Florida Bay. Both distributions reflect winter 
temperature. Nesting sites and non-nesting habitat have been lost to development on 
Miami Beach and the upper Florida Keys, but this loss has been compensated by the 
creation of artificial nesting sites on spoil banks along southern Biscayne Bay and a 
westward addition to the nesting range in Florida bay. Except for the shift in nesting 
away from developed areas, the general distribution of the American crocodile in 
Florida is the same as that historically documentable. 

1977 - 1981 

Kushlan, J. A., S. A. Voorhees, W. F. Loftus, and P. C. Frohring (1986) Length, mass, and 
calorific relationships of Everglades animals. Fla. Sci. . 49(2):65-79. 

Meristic and calorific relationships were determined for aquatic animals from southern 
Florida. The relationships derived included wet mass to length (52 species, 2 families), 
dry mass to length (17 species), dry mass to wet mass (17 species), and calorific 
value (44 taxa). These analyses were the first available for most of the species. Such 
relationships can be used in estimating standing stock and energy flow in aquatic 
systems. Samples were obtained during routine sampling programs from 1977 to 1981. 

1977 - 1981 

Ledder, D. A. (1987) Food habits of the West Indian Manatee, Trichechus manatus 
Latirostris, in south Florida. M. S. Thesis, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL. 114 pp. 
Gut contents were collected from 84 animals over a five year period, from 1977 to 
1981, in order to describe the diet of Trichechus manatus latirostris in South Florida. 
Microhistological analysis was used to identify plant species sampled from the 
stomach, duodenum, and cecum. A gross analysis was also carried out to estimate the 
ratio of surface to subsurface portions of the plants consumed. The manatees sampled 
fed in both fresh and salt water. The seagrass Halodule wriqhtii comprised the largest 
portion of the diet (24.4% by percent composition), followed by the freshwater species 
Hydrilla verticillata (12.-7%). Significant contributions were also made by the 
seagrass Syringodium filiforme (9.1%), and the euryhaline species Ruppia maritima 
(7.4%). Algae were found in large amounts in five of the animals, resulting in a total 


234 






contribution of 6.0% to the diet of the sample population. The most common plant 
species in the diet were equally represented in males and females. Adult and juvenile 
animals differed only with respect to the consumption of Syringodium filiforme, 
Panicum hemitomon, and algae. Seagrass made large contributions to the diets of 
animals on the coasts, while Hydrilla verticillata and Panicum hemitomon made the 
largest contributions to the diets of animals in Central Florida. Halodule wrightii 
contributed the greatest percentage to the diet by percent composition in summer and 
winter, while Syringodium filiforme and Thalassia testudinum values were highest in 
the winter and spring, and spring respectively. The terrestrial grass Panicum 
hemitomon, and freshwater plant species contributed the most to the diets of the 
animals during the fall. Subsurface portions of plants contributed more to the diet for 
salt water species (mean ratio of surface/subsurface portions = 46/54) than for 
freshwater species (86/14). Ratios of surface/subsurface portions of plants were 
essentially equal for males and females, and for juveniles and adults. Manatees 
collected on the coasts consumed more subsurface portions of plants than those 
collected from Central Florida. More subsurface portions of plants were consumed in 
winter and summer than in the spring and fall. 

1977 - 1981 

Mazzotti, F. J. (1983) The ecology of Crocodylus acutus in Florida. Ph. D. Dissertation. The 

Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA. 161 pp. 

Crocodylus acutus formerly occupied a much broader range in southeastern Florida. 
Aerial and boat surveys showed that the current core distribution of C. acutus is the 
extreme southern Florida mainland and northern Key Largo. Most sightings were in 
bays, ponds, rivers, and canals in mangrove swamps. All known nesting sites are 
within this area. Approximately 50% of the sightings and captures of non-hatchling 
crocodiles were of immature animals. Thus recruitment into the breeding population 
appears to be occurring. Seventy-four percent of the known crocodile mortalities that 
occurred between 1971 and 1981 were related to human activities such as shooting or 
collision with automobiles. Preservation of the crocodile population will require 
increasing attention to reducing the adverse effects of man and protection of remaining 
habitats from disturbance. Crocodiles nest on exposed shoreline beaches, creek banks, 
and canal banks. The substrate may be composed of marl, peat, or sand. Failure of eggs 
to hatch is primarily caused by desiccation and flooding, and the nesting period is timed 
to avoid the driest and wettest periods of the year. Approximately 200 hatchlings are 
produced each year in Everglades National Park. Hatchlings usually disperse rapidly 
from their nests, and it was not possible to distinguish between death and dispersal. 
However, some hatchling crocodiles survived for at least a year in Everglades National 
Park, on northern Key Largo and at the Turkey Point power plant site. Turkey Point 
hatchling crocodiles were found in the cooling canal system. Here, as in other parts of 
southern Florida, hatchlings not only tolerated saline water but gained mass under 
hypersaline conditions. They grow to the size (200 g) at which they show increased 
tolerance to seawater by the onset of the dry season in October. Hatchling C. acutus 
have rates of body sodium and water turnovers similar to those of hatchling Alligator 
mississippiensis. Both species appear less specialized for life in saline water than C. 
porosus. In the laboratory, C. acutus held in seawater can osmoregulate behaviorally by 
drinking brackish water made available by simulating rainfall. The drinking of brackish 
water combined with rapid growth to a more salt tolerant size seems to be one of the 
primary specializations of C. acutus for life in saline water. 


235 


1977 - 1982 

Kushlan, J. A., and F. J. Mazzotti (1982) Population biology and status of the American 
crocodile in south Florida. In: Crocodiles . D. Dietz and F.W. King (eds.). Gland, Switzerland 
IUCN. 188-94. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] The population 
biology and status of the American crocodile was studied in Florida Bay during 1977 - 
1982. In this paper the authors briefly abstract some new findings concerning various 
hypotheses previously suggested to account for presumed population decreases. Data is 
summarized on historic population status, current population size and structure, 
nesting biology, habitat, mortality as well as management needs which suggest that 
current population is not decreasing, although its historic range has decreased 
somewhat. The authors see no need for any drastic manipulative management of the 
south Florida crocodile population. 

1977 - 1982 

Kushlan, J. A., and F. J. Mazzotti (1989) Population biology of the American crocodile. J_. 

Herpetology, 23 (i): 7 - 2 i. 

The population biology of the American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) was studied in 
southern Florida during 1977 - 1982. Crocodiles were located on monthly surveys 
using boat, canoe, fixed wing airplane and helicopter. An extensive 

capture/mark/release program was conducted using boats at night. Crocodiles occur 
primarily in inland mangrove swamps protected from wave action. Females use the 
open waters of Florida Bay only for access to nesting sites. Individuals have large (86- 
262 ha) overlapping activity areas. Nesting occurs in spring and summer avoiding the 
cold and the wet seasons either of which can affect incubation. Clutches averaging 38 
eggs were laid both in mounts and in holes in the ground either singly or communally. 

Available data cannot support the view that the number of nests has decreased in 

recent years. Hatching failure occurred as a result of infertility, predation, and 

embryonic mortality from desiccation and flooding. Hole and creek nests were most 
susceptible to embryonic mortality. Seventy-eight percent of nests hatched some 
young. No evidence was found of adults defending nests or young but nest opening by 
adults was essential for hatching. Disturbance at nest sites caused females to abandon 
the site. All expected age classes occurred in the population. Size at maturity was 2.25 
m TL for females. Documented mortality of adult and subadult of approximately 2 
crocodiles per year was predominantly human-caused. At least 45 crocodiles have been 
released into southern Florida in 17 yrs. We estimate the southern Florida population to 
be about 220 ± 78 adults and subadults. 

1977 - 1982 

Mazzotti, F. J. (1988) Science, politics, and management of crocodilians in the Everglades. 
Wildlife in the Everglades and Latin America Wetlands . Wildlife in the Everglades and Latin 
America Wetlands, 1985. G. W. Dalrymple, W. F. Loftus, and F. S. Bernardino (eds.). Fiorida 
International University, Miami, FL. 5-6. 

This citation discusses various aspects of the management of crocodile populations in 
the Everglades National Park. 

1977 - 1992 

Bohnsack, J. A., D. E. Harper, and D. B. McClellan (1994) Fisheries trends from Monroe 
County, Florida. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3):982-1018. 

Fishing is an important activity in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS). 
Concern exists that excessive fishing could be deleterious to individual species, disrupt 
marine ecosystems, and damage the overall economy of the Florida Keys. We examined 
data from commercial, recreational, and marine life fisheries in Monroe County. 


236 






Invertebrates comprised the majority of commercial landings. In 1992, the total 
reported commercial landings were composed of 52% invertebrates (4.09 x 106 kg), 
28% reef fishes (2.19 x 106 kg), and 21% non-reef fishes (1.62 x 106 kg). In the 
recreational headboat fishery, reef fishes accounted for 92% of 0.107 x 106 kg 
average total annual landings from the Dry Tortugas and 86% of 0.201 x 106 kg landed 
from the Florida Keys since 1981. Average annual landings for other recreational 
fisheries were estimated at 1.79 x 106 kg for reef fishes (45%) and 2.17 x 106 kg for 
non-reef fishes (55%) from 1980 through 1992. Finer resolution of catch and effort 
data are needed, especially for recreational fisheries. Landings for some species varied 
greatly over time. The most conspicuous declines were for pink shrimp, combined 
grouper, and king mackerel while the most conspicuous increases were for amberjack, 
stone crab, blue crab, and yellowtail snapper. Landings of spiny lobster have generally 
remained constant. Fisheries closed to harvest included queen conch, Nassau grouper, 
jewfish, and stony corals. Effective fishing effort has increased over time with more 
participants and more effective fishing technology. Since 1965, the number of 
registered private recreational vessels has increased over six times, while the number 
of commercial and headboat vessels has remained stable. The number of management 
actions have continually increased and become more restrictive with increased fishing 
effort. Comparison of fisheries was complicated because different fisheries targeted 
different species and different sized organisms. Also, landings were sometimes 
reported by numbers and sometimes by weight. Measures of reproductive value and 
spawning potential are suggested as useful parameters for comparing effects of 
different fisheries. The new FKNMS provides a unique opportunity to shift management 
emphasis from a species approach to an ecosystem and habitat based approach. 


1978 0 

Crapon de Caprona, A. (1978) Foraminiferes et microfaunes associees de I'ilot de Murray 
Key, Baie de Floride (Foraminifera and associated microfauna of Murray Key, Florida Bay). 
Univ. Geneve, Lab. Paleontol., Geneva. Notes du Laboratoire de Paleontoloaie . 
2(1-13):37-43 (In French). 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE.] 


1978 0 

Carter, P. W., and R. N. Mitterer (1978) Amino acid composition of organic matter 
associated with carbonate and non-carbonate sediments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta . 
42(8): 1231-8. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Studies on 
carbonate sediment samples from the Florida Keys and Florida Bay (Cross Key Bank) 
and noncarbonate samples from Mexico Beach, Florida, indicate that amino acids 
comprise 15-36% by wt of humic substances from these sediments. Humic and fulvic 
acids extracted from carbonate sediments are characterized primarily by the acidic 
amino acids aspartic and glutamic acid. From these sediments it was found that lower 
mol wt fractions have appreciably higher relative abundances of the acidic amino acids 
compared to higher mol wt fractions. Based on typical values for carboxyl group 
content in humic substances, acidic amino acids may be a significant contributor of 
these functional groups. Carbonate surfaces selectively adsorb aspartic acid-enriched 
organic matter while noncarbonates do not. 


1978 0 

Davies, T. D., and W. Spackman (1978) The nature, occurrence, and significance of peat in 
Florida Bay. Geol. Soc. Amer. Abs. . 10(7):386. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The sporadic 
occurrence of a buried peat layer has been reported by most researchers concerned 


237 





with the sediments of Florida Bay. However, sampling on a one-mile square grid pattern 
has revealed the presence of a sub-marl autochthonous peat over a much larger area 
than previously shown. At one site several miles south of mainland Florida, peat forms 
the entire sedimentary sequence. Eleven cores from the islands and ‘banks' were 
analyzed petrographically, palynologically, and chemically and a limited number of age 
determinations were made. Petrographic and palynological studies of the peats show 
that a terrestrial vegetation occupied a large portion of the Bay in the recent past. 
Basal peat sediments indicate that much of the area involved was covered with 
freshwater marsh and swamp environments with the saline mangrove environment 
which now characterizes the Bay gradually encroaching from the south and west. 
Fresh-water peat types encountered include water lily peat, saw grass-arrowhead 
peat, and buttonbush peat. The environments associated with these peats became 
progressively more saline. Fresh-water peats are overlain by brackish buttonwood 
peat which is, in turn, overlain by saline mangrove peats. In most places the 
transgressive sequence is completed by several feet of marine carbonate mud. The now 
discontinuous occurrences of peat appear to represent remnants of more extensive peat 
layers, some of which may have been continuous with those of mainland Florida. The 
peats display unexpectedly low pyrite concentrations as well as total S contents. 
Evidence suggests that this is the result of the lack of available iron and hence a failure 
to fix the available S in the sulfide form. 


1978 0 

DeBellevue, E., H. T. Odum, J. Browder, and G. Gardner (1978) Energy analysis of the 
Everglades National Park. Rep. T-527. South Florida Research Center, Everglades National 
Park, Homestead, FL. 34 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This report 
presents the first attempt, using an energy analysis, to show a National Park as an 
integral part of a larger system. The most important components and interactions with 
the model are shown using energy circuit diagrams representing subsystems such as 
mangrove, saltwater, sawgrass, marine meadows, etc. Pathways are evaluated 
numerically using available data and comparative values are given by the energy 
analysis. An analysis of the park fishery based on commercial and recreational catches 
at Flamingo was made using the retail price of fish as their value to the economy. A 
ratio of fossil fuel energy input using coal equivalents was made and related to 
increased water supply on the parks value to the regional system. Results included a 
land use map of park subsystems, an evaluated Everglades National Park model and 
summary diagrams. A floodway, from Lake Okeechobee to Conservation Area III, was 
proposed by the authors to restore natural flow to the park, and to serve agriculture 
and urban development. 


1978 0 

Gilbert, C. R. (ed.) (1978) Rare and endangered biota of Florida. Vol. 4. Fishes. University 
Press of Florida, Gainesville, FL. 58 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] A classification 
and description of Florida's aquatic ecosystems was provided along with definitions of 
status categories and a list of included species of fish. Those 
rare/endangered/threatened species known to occur in the coastal areas of the 
Everglades National Park include key silverside, Menidia conchorum , Rivulus Rivulus 
marmoratus, mangrove mosquitofish Gambusia rhizophorae. 


238 


1978 0 

Ogden, J. C. (1978) American crocodile. Rare and Endangered Biota of Florida . Vol. 3, 
Amphibians and Reptiles. R. W. McDiarmid (ed.). University of Florida Press, Gainesville, 
FL. 21-2. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This is a short description of the 
ecology, range, habitat and status of the American crocodile. 


1978 

Poole, A. (1979) Sibling aggression among nestling ospreys in Florida Bay. The Auk . 
96(2):4 1 5-7. 

Nestling activity was monitored during 1978 at two Florida Bay osprey nests as part of 
a study of osprey feeding ecology for the region. One nestling was consistently 
aggressive towards its only nestmate. The aggression produced no physical damage but 
was sufficient to reduce the food intake of the intimidated sibling significantly. 


1978 0 

Wanless, H. R. (1978) Storm generated stratigraphy of carbonate mud banks, South Florida. 
Geol. Soc. Amer. Abs. . 10(7):512. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Southward 
migration and expansion of east-west trending carbonate mudbanks within Biscayne Bay 
and Florida Bay have generated sedimentary sequences composed of four lithologies. 
These lithologies are produced by an interaction of hurricane and repetitive winter 
storm sedimentation. A molluscan-foraminiferal grainstone to packstone forms the 
basal 0 - 15 cm over Pleistocene bedrock. This is a winter storm winnowed lag of 
sediment produced in bays adjacent to banks and/or carried into the bays during 
hurricanes. The overlying 0.2 - 1 m is a crudely layered molluscan foraminiferal 
packstone thought to represent hurricane layers. These are deposited as widespread 
layers in the bays but are only preserved where covered by migrating or expanding 
mudbank flanks. The bulk of the mudbanks is a pelleted mudstone (2 - 3 m in thickness) 
formed by lee side accretion of fine sediment during winter storms. Hurricanes may 
also add mud to lee flanks. Winter storm waves will strip any hurricane mud layers 
from north facing flanks. North facing flanks of banks contain a surficial molluscan 
grainstone to packstone. Shell is derived from winnowing of eroding north facing flanks 
as well as from southward transport from adjacent bays. Winter storm waves move 
lobes of this grainstone onto the bank flat. These anastomosing mudbanks of biogenic 
sediment record a dynamic history of physical sedimentation caused by accretion and 
erosion during minor and major storm events and probably also by evolving stability of 
subcircular bay patterns during late stages of the Holocene rise of sea level. 

1978 - 1979 

Lyons, W. G., D. G. Barber, S. M. Foster, F. S. Kennedy, and G. R. Milano (1981) The spiny 
lobster, Panulirus argus, in the Middle and Upper Florida Keys: Population structure, 
seasonal dynamics, and reproduction. Rep. No. 38. Florida Department of Natural 
Resources, St. Petersburg, FL. 45 pp. 

Data on abundance, distribution, size, sex, mating, spawning, molting, incidence of 
fouling organisms, and injury rates were obtained from 19,180 lobsters at nine 
stations in the upper and middle Keys fishery area during April 1978 through March 
1979. Mean and modal carapace length (CL) sizes were approximately 73 mm, slightly 
below legal size (76 mm). Lobsters at deep reef (30 m) stations averaged 80.1 mm CL; 
size decreased gradually to an average of 65.6 mm CL at shallow (3 m) Bay stations. 
Distribution of lobsters was age- and habitat-related; immature, principally sublegal 
lobsters in year class 2+ occupied southern Florida Bay stations, then moved gradually 
to nearshore oceanside Keys stations; lobsters in year class 3+ migrated seaward in 


239 





response to onset of maturity or declining late fall-early winter temperatures. Stations 
on the north sides of Keys were within the Florida Bay nursery area, where fishery- 
induced damage to sublegal lobsters probably exceeded legal catch from the area. Legal¬ 
sized lobster constituted 43.7% of total catch; 90% were captured at oceanside 
stations, and nearly half were from the deep reef. Greatest mean sizes at all but one 
station occurred during the closed season or the first month of the open season and 
represented growth among lobsters at each station. Upper Keys stations were more 
productive (average +67%) than were comparable middle Keys stations. Marked 
declines in average size at all stations during winter are attributed to depletion by the 
fishery to legal-sized lobsters and to seaward emigration of relatively larger lobsters 
from shoreward subpopulations. Mean total number of lobsters per trap per week was 
0.84, constituting 0.70 at bay stations and 0.91 oceanside. Legal catch averaged 0.37 
lobsters per trap week, constituting 0.12 at bay stations, 0.50 oceanside. Poundage of 
legal catch during the open season seldom averaged 1 lb per trap per week except at 
deep reef stations, indicating .weekly catch rates less than one third of those two 
decades previous. Female:male ratio (1.2:1) was strongly influenced by significantly 
more females than males at seaward reef stations. Virtually all mating, evidenced by 
external spermatophores on females, occurred among oceanside lobsters, and 88% of 
all activity was found at two deep reef and one shallow (10 m) reef station. Principal 
mating season was from April through June. Spawning, evidenced by externally carried 
eggs, occurred only at oceanside stations; 31.1% of females at two deep reef and one 
shallow reef station were spawning during peak months of May and June. Size of the 
smallest spawning female was 65 mm CL, but greatest spawning contribution (24.5%) 
was in the 81-85 mm size class. Nearly 60% of all eggs were produced by lobsters < 
85 mm CL. Spawning contribution by the Keys population was only 12% of that 
expected from a comparably sized, unharvested population of larger lobsters. Fouling 
by various sessile invertebrates was slight or absent on most lobsters. No correlation 
was found between fouled lobsters and capture location. Indications of molting averaged 
only 1% in the total population, but was significantly more frequent at nearshore (3 - 6 
m) than at seaward (9 - 30 m) stations. Maximum molting frequency (2.7%) during 
April may have been in response to temperature increases. Greatest rates of injury 
occurred at the ends of the 1977 - 78 and 1978 - 79 fishing seasons; injuries declined 
rapidly due to growth and regeneration during the closed season. Unexplainably low 
previous-injury rate of sublegal-sized lobsters during the open season suggests they 
may have experienced considerable mortality due to fishery practices. The sampling 
sites in Florida Bay were at Vaca Key and Matecumbe Key. 

1978 - 1979 

Dunson, W. A. (1980) Osmoregulation of crocodiles in Everglades National Park. Rep. T- 

599. South Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 29 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] The physiological 
effects of high salinity on young crocodiles, Crocodylus acutus, was examined in 
Florida Bay using measurements of electrolyte composition of plasma and cloacal fluid 
and of possible hatchling food. No final answer can be given to the hypothesis that a 
major portion of crocodile mortality in Florida Bay is associated with osmoregulatory 
problems caused by high salinities. Small C. acutus show few physiological 
specializations for life in saline waters although results indicate that the vicinity of 
many nest sites are saline enough that difficulties could be encountered in water and 
salt balance. The author suggests additional studies are needed to establish their 
mortality under the most stringent salinity regime ever likely naturally to be 
encountered. 


240 


1978 - 1979 

Dunson, W. A. (1982) Salinity relations of crocodiles in Florida Bay. Copeia . 1982(2):374- 

85. 

Studies were carried out to determine the importance of high salinity as a limiting 
factor to the Florida Bay population of Crocodylus acutus, since hatchlings in captivity 
are unable to survive in seawater. Sodium, K, Cl and osmotic pressure were measured 
in samples of plasma and cloacal fluid. The ion and uric acid content of solid cloacal 
excretions was also determined. Sodium influx and efflux of small crocodiles 
submerged in seawater and of isolated skin keratin were measured. The relationships 
between snout-vent length, body mass and surface area were estimated. It was found 
that the head-neck, tail, legs and body regions each account for about one-fourth of the 
total area. Studies were conducted on hatchling crocodiles of evaporative water loss, 
behavioral osmoregulation and on the water and ion content of possible food items. Wild 
hatchlings have a plasma osmotic pressure near 330 mOsm, a level typical of 
vertebrates. Body Na influx and efflux are quite low; there is a net uptake in seawater 
of about 9 mmoles 100 g' 1 body mass hr. The skin is probably very low in Na 
permeability. There is a substantial loss of water from fasting hatchling crocodiles 
submerged in seawater (35 %o) or held in moist air. Feeding is an important means of 
balancing these water losses. When fed fish ad lib. and kept in an aquarium divided into 
land and water portions, most small (100 - 480 g) crocodiles maintained body mass at 
salinities up to 17.5 %o. Some even gained mass at 26 %o. Field data from Florida 
Bay tend to confirm that C. acutus hatchlings are intolerant of 35 %o seawater. This 
study was conducted during 1978 and 1979. 

1978 - 1979 

Poole, A. (1982) Brood reduction in temperate and sub-tropical ospreys. Oecoloqia . 

53(1): 111-9. 

In an effort to understand patterns and causes of nestling loss in ospreys (Pandion 
haliaetus), the brood reduction in three eastern osprey colonies was studied during 
1978 and 1979. The colonies, located in Florida Bay (1) and on coastal Long Island, NY 
(2), differed in the average daily amount of food delivered to nestlings; Florida nests 
received 43% and 11% less fish per day than nests in the two NY colonies, largely 
because latitude and season restricted day length and thus foraging time for the winter¬ 
breeding Florida ospreys. Increased distance from stable food sources accounted for the 
lower rate of feeding at one of the NY colonies. Variation in clutch size in the three 
colonies reflected differences in latitude more than in food availability; average clutch 
sizes in Long Island were larger than Florida clutches by 0.5 of an egg, but were similar 
to each other and to those in other northeastern US osprey populations. Increased 
nestling loss coincided with reduced food delivery rates and, in food stressed colonies, 
this loss was 2-3 times greater than any recorded for ospreys. Starvation was the 
primary cause of nestling death, with mortality concentrated on third chicks, which 
hatched on average 3.9 days later and from eggs 5.6% smaller than chicks hatching 
first. Sibling aggression accounted for the preferential feeding of older nestmates, but 
only in colonies or nests where food was limited. Aggressive chicks nearly always 
stopped fighting after being fed. This behavior provided a reversible mechanism for 
controlling brood reduction that was based on nutrition. Growth rates of young 
measured during the first half of the growth period were more variable between 
colonies than within nests. This is interpreted as reflecting both the differences in 
colony food delivery rates as well as the evolutionary pressures of sibling competition 
to equalize the growth of nestmates. 


241 




1978 - 1980 

Davis, G. E., and J. W. Dodrill (1989) Recreational fishery and population dynamics of spiny 
lobsters, Panulirus argus, in Florida Bay, Everglades National Park, 1977-1980. Symp. on 
Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. ScL 44(1):78-88. 
Florida spiny lobsters, Panulirus argus, are found in the southern two-thirds of Florida 
Bay. Field studies of 3,570 tagged lobsters revealed that they pass through Florida 
Bay, using it for less than three years as juveniles, between their planktonic larval 
stages in the open ocean and adulthood on coral reefs. The field studies took place in 
1978 through 1979. Lobsters from the Bay supported commercial and recreational 
fisheries outside of Everglades National Park from Dry Tortugas to Pacific Reef near 
Miami. Growth rates of juvenile lobsters in Florida Bay were found to be the highest on 
record, which may reflect optimum habitat with abundant food and shelter. Reportedly, 
the average-sized lobster taken by commercial bully netters in the Bay prior to 1965 
was 90-95 mm carapace length. The Everglades National Park recreational harvest in 
1978 - 1979 was about 20,000 lobsters with a mean size of 83 mm CL., and about 
44,000 lobsters (x 88 mm CL) in the 1979-1980 season. The fishery also provided 
7,500 to 8,000 person-days of recreation each year for about 1,000 persons. In 
1980, a lobster nursery sanctuary was created in the Everglades National Park portion 
of Florida Bay to restore the natural conditions of the bay and provide more lobsters 
for harvest in adjacent fisheries. 

1978 - 1980 

Morrison, D. (1984) Seasonality of Batophora oerstedi (Chlorophyta), a tropical macroalga. 
Mar. Ecol. Prog, Ser, . 14:235-44. 

The seasonality of Batophora oerstedi, a benthic tropical macroalga, was studied in 
Florida Bay at Key Largo. Abundance, measured by biomass and coverage sampling 
varied seasonally with standing crop highest in summer and fall and lowest in winter. 
Reproductive activity, expressed as percentage of reproductive individuals, varied 
seasonally with greatest activity in fall. It is hypothesized that the fall reproductive 
pulse may be triggered by a drop in water temperature caused by the passage of the 
first fall cold front or, infrequently, a late summer-early fall hurricane. Net 
photosynthesis (P N ) exhibited a unimodal seasonal pattern with highest rates in summer 
and lowest rates in winter. Net photosynthesis was positively correlated with water 
temperature, but not significantly correlated with any other environmental parameter. 
Respiration (R), constant throughout much of the year, was elevated in fall during the 
period of maximal reproductive activity. The daily (24 hr) P/R ratio was always 
greater than unity suggesting that Batophora is capable of year-round growth. This 
study took place from 1978 to 1980. 

1978 - 1980 

Olmstead, I. C., L. L. Loope, and R. P. Russell. (1981) Vegetation of the southern coastal 
region of Everglades National Park between Flamingo and Joe Bay. Rep. T-620. South 
Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 18 pp. 

Much of the early mangrove literature for southern Florida has emphasized the land 
building role of mangroves. Succession beyond the mangrove stage depends on the 
deposition of sediments during storms. Mangrove ecosystems are true ’steady-state" 
ecosystems in the sense that they are self-maintaining in spite of cyclic perturbations, 
as long as environmental tolerances of salinity and moisture fall within their optimal 
tolerance range. We are comfortable with this view, although we find it convenient to 
speak of the process of mangrove ecosystem recovery from hurricanes as succession. 
The hurricane of 1960 killed most of the mangrove vegetation within the mapped area. 
However, re-establishment of mangrove vegetation was rapid in many areas. Red, 
black and white mangrove, as well as buttonwood normally have ripe propagules during 


242 




the hurricane season, and the current vegetation pattern suggests that all except 
buttonwood were able to establish immediately following the 1960 hurricane. Soil 
moisture and salinity, as well as propagule availability, probably determined which 
species established in a given locality. Though we do not know the alteration of species 
composition between most stands killed by the hurricane, and new stands becoming 
established, the maps tell us much about certain other stands. Buttonwood and hammock 
vegetation, located on higher ground, largely escaped severe destruction by the last 
hurricanes. Even though mechanical damage from the hurricane was considerable for 
these ‘upland* types, numerous trees survived. In many cases, buttonwoods which 
were uprooted later produced new shoots along the fallen trunks. In fact, vegetative 
reproduction seems to have been the prime mode of reproduction for buttonwood. 
Buttonwood seedlings and saplings are very rare. The presence of scattered tall, old 
mangroves towering above a dense canopy of young white mangroves in the area north 
of Snake Bight and Garfield Bight shows clearly that white mangrove has colonized the 
area since the 1960 hurricane. The current vegetation mosaic frequently has a band of 
halophytic herbaceous vegetation located between mangrove and buttonwood or 
buttonwood-hammock vegetation. These saline flats have increased substantially in the 
area since the early 1930s. Large areas of saline flats occur with skeletons of dead 
trees, usually Conocarpus. Little or no reproduction is evident in what was formerly a 
forest. Reasons for the lack of mangrove or buttonwood reproduction here are not clear 
presumably changes in substrate, salinity and/or water table are involved. 

1978 - 1980 

Rutherford, E. S. (1982) Age, growth and mortality of the spotted seatrout, Cynoscion 
nebulosus, in Everglades National Park, Florida. M. S. Thesis. University of Miami, Coral 
Gables, FL, 65 pp. 

Age, growth and mortality were studied in 570 spotted seatrout taken from 
sportfishermen catches in Everglades National Park from 1978 to 1980. Fish ranged in 
length from 220 - 680 mm and in weight from 0.10 - 2.24 kg. Ages of the catch, 
determined from scale readings, were mainly 3 and 4 yrs. Males lived to at least six 
years, females to at least seven years. The sex ratio favored females (1.67/1). Fish 
lengths at age were back calculated from scale annuli. Fish length varied between sexes 
and among areas of capture. Males were larger than females at age 1 but smaller at 
ages 3-6. Calculated fish length and length at capture were largest in seasonally 
brackish areas and smallest in a hypersaline area of the Park. There was no significant 
difference in length-weight relationship between sexes or among areas of capture. 
Annual mortality rate of all fish was 77%. Male spotted seatrout had higher annual 
mortality and conditional fishing mortality than females. Conditional natural mortalities 
were the same for both sexes. Exploitation ratio was higher for males than for females. 
Yield per recruit for both male and female spotted seatrout was at or near maximum 
given the 12 in. minimum size limit. Comparison of the results of this study with an 
earlier study of Park spotted seatrout showed apparent changes in age distribution, age 
at full recruitment and mortality since 1959, although yield per recruit and mean sizes 
at age of fish have not changed. Dominant ages shifted from 2- and 3-yr old, to 3- and 
4-yr old fish. Age at full recruitment shifted from age 3 to age 4. Annual mortality of 
all fish increased slightly since 1959. 

1978 - 1980 

Rutherford, E. S., E. B. Thue, and D. G. Buker (1983) Population structure, food habits, and 
spawning activity of gray snapper, Lutjanus griseus, in Everglades National Park. Rep. 
SFRC-83/02. South Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 
41 pp. 


243 


Population structure, food habits, and spawning activity of 1026 gray snapper Lutjanus 
griseus were studied in Everglades National Park from November 1978 through 
January 1980. Fish were sampled from sportfishermen catches and ranged in length 

from 111 - 451 mm FL (x = 257 ± 3.2 mm) and in weight from 0.05 - 1.6 kg (x = 0.33 

± .02 kg). There was no difference in mean length between sexes. Fish aged from scale 
annuli ranged from one to seven years. Two- and three-yr old fish dominated the catch. 
Recruitment was complete by age three. The mean age of all fish was 3.0 ± 0.1 yrs. 
There was no difference in mean age between the sexes. Fish taken from the Cape Sable 
area were significantly older than fish taken from other areas. Calculated growth of 
gray snapper was greatest in the first year and relatively linear before increasing in 
the fifth year. Calculated growth varied between sexes and among areas of capture. 
Females were significantly larger than males at one and two. Fish taken from 
hypersaline areas near the Gulf of Mexico were larger at ages one through four than 

fish taken from seasonally brackish waters. Males in the Shark River area did not show 

as great an increase in weight length as did all fish in other areas. Females in the Coot 
Bay and Whitewater area were heavier at a given length than all fish in other areas. 
Annual survival rate of all fully recruited fish was s = 0.28 ± .03. Survival of males 
was higher than females. Gray snapper survival was higher in hypersaline waters near 
the Gulf than in other areas. Spawning activity probably occurs outside of park waters. 
Only four of 668 examined inside park waters were ripe. Park gray snapper diet 
consisted mainly of fish, shrimp, and crabs. Species composition of the diet varied with 
age and among seasons and areas of capture. Comparison of this study with an earlier 
study of Park gray snapper showed increases in survival and longevity since 1960. No 
changes in diet, spawning activity, or growth rate were noted. 


1979 

Anonymous (1980) Pesticide use observations, Monroe County, Florida, March - June 

1979. USEPA, National Enforcement Investigations Center (NEIC), Denver, CO. 36 pp. 

From June 3 to 14, 1979, a pesticide use observation study was conducted by the 
National Enforcement Investigations Center (NEIC) in Monroe County. During the study, 
an EPA team evaluated the environmental effects resulting from the aerial application 
of Naled (Dibrom-14) and ground application of Baytex for the control of mosquitoes. A 
reconnaissance survey in March of the marine environment in the Everglades National 
Park revealed no pesticide residues were detected prior to the initiation of the 
mosquito control program by Monroe County. Lack of precipitation in the spring reduced 
mosquito breeding activities and consequently the necessity for intensified pesticide 
applications. Records indicate only three aerial and two ground application occurred 
from June 3 to 14, 1979. Of the 37 surface water samples collected from the 
Everglades National Park marine environment, two contained detectable amounts of 
pesticide. At Station 10 on June 5, Naled was found at a concentration of 0.02 mg/L. On 
June 14 at Station 04, Naled appeared at a concentration of 0.06 pig/L. No Baytex was 
found in the water samples. Pesticide drift into the area adjacent to the Park was 
confirmed by the use of Hi-Vol air samplers at Station 12 (Ranger Station) on three 
occasions. On June 4, filter paper in the Hi-Vol samplers captured 0.18 pig of Baytex 
sprayed via ground applications. June 5 and 12 the air monitoring filters revealed a 
capture of 0.06 pig and 0.02 pig respectively. Uptake by exposed marine organisms of 
the applied pesticide was negligible. The only observed instance of uptake occurred at 
Station 05 (Manatee Creek) where the oysters accumulated an average of 0.007 pig/g 
of Naled. Baytex was not found in detectable amounts. Field analyses of hydrographic 
conditions were made daily throughout the 11-day study to determine if the aquatic 
environment affected the survival rate of the test animals. From June 3 to 14, records 
revealed that conditions were at a seasonal norm and as such appeared to have had no 
direct influence on test organism survival during the exposure studies. The test to 


244 


relate the presence of an oily film on the water surface to a pesticide incursion into a 
non-target area proved inconclusive. Two filter paper samples of a surface film were 
obtained and neither contained measurable amounts of Naled nor Baytex. The Monroe 
County Mosquito Control District supervises the disposal of used containers at a local 
sanitary landfill which operates a drum crusher. The Safety Director was advised that 
because Naled and Baytex are kept in Group II containers, it is recommended that each 
empty container be triple rinsed and crushed prior to disposal in a landfill. 


1979 0 

Centaur Associates, Inc. (1979) Socioeconomic assessment for fishery management, 
Everglades National Park. Rep. T-543. South Florida Research Center, Everglades National 
Park, Homestead, FL. 105 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This report 
presents the socioeconomic impact assessments and adverse effects from restrictions 
on commercial and recreational fishing activities in the Everglades National Park. The 
Park is unique with respect to fishery resources and fishery management. Florida Bay 
has been subject to a considerable degree of commercial and recreational pressure. The 
issuance of commercial fishing permits are nearly equally divided between Florida Bay 
and the Everglades City area while recreational and guide and charterboat fishing is an 
important attraction primarily in the Flamingo - Florida Bay area. Although all 
commercial and recreational fishing is done in accordance with state regulations, 
intense competition exists between both factions with the result that the NPS explore 
alternative management options for the park's fishery resources. These actions which 
require consideration as they affect three South Florida counties and in relation to 24 
fishery management alternatives, are assessed as follows: prohibition of net fishing, 
bag limits and harvest sizes of major gamefish species, prohibited harvest of stone 
crabs and spiny lobster and commercial permits, boat and motor restrictions, and 
financial and non-financial impacts are given for each management action. 


1979 0 

Davies, T. D. (1979) The use of peat petrography in reconstructing shoreline migration in 

the area of Florida Bay. Geol. Soc. Amer. Abs. . 11 (7):410. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] New data 
gathered in Florida Bay substantiates an earlier hypothesis that the sea level rise, to 
its present level, has been continuous during the last 5,500 radiocarbon yrs. It has 
been determined that thirteen peat types occur in Florida Bay ranging from freshwater 
to marine. The non-marine peats are situated at the base of the sediment sequence 
either directly on the Pleistocene bedrock or on a thin layer of freshwater, calcitic 
mud. Radiocarbon dates of the basal freshwater peats from the Bay suggest that 
sedimentation of the freshwater peats took place in the southwestern part of the Bay 
prior to 5,000 yrs BP. This strongly suggests that the position of the shoreline, at this 
time, was a considerable distance to the west and south. The sea probably did not begin 
to influence the vegetation of the Bay area until sometime after 5,000 yrs ago. This is 
particularly well documented by the freshwater tree island peat underlying Ninemile 
Bank dated to be 5190 ± 100 yrs BP. Although these freshwater peats megascopically 
resemble the fibrous coastal, mangrove peats, microscopic examination revealed that 
they are freshwater in origin. Their ’fibrous’ nature results from intruded roots of 
brackish and marine plants which grew in overlying environments. Recognition of this 
fact together with knowledge of the age of the various peat types results in the 
conclusion that the shoreline initiated its migration into the Bay area later than 
previously recognized and its eastern movement has been slower than heretofore 
thought. 


245 



1979 0 

Davies, T. D. (1979) The carbonaceous sediments of Florida Bay and their anomalous sulfur 

content. Proc., IX Inter. Congr. of Carbon. Strat. and Geol., May 1979, Urbana, IL. 49. 

(ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Systematic 
sampling on a one-mile square grid pattern has revealed that a sub-marl, autochtonous 
peat is more widespread over Florida Bay then heretofore recorded. Cores from islands 
and banks were analyzed petrographically and palynologically and the peats were 
classified according to their source environment. The areal extent of the peat suggests 
that the vegetation of the Bay was more widespread in the past. The petrographic and 
palynologic studies, in all instances, demonstrated a clearly defined transgressive 
sequence. The basal peats represent freshwater environments of both marsh and forest 
types. These are overlain by brackish water, and then by marine peat, unless the peat 
sequence is truncated by an unconformity. Typically the peat is overlain by a marine 
carbonate mud, but in one case it makes up the entire sedimentary sequence of 3.53 m 
(or 139 in). Sixty-three peat samples from fifteen cores taken from Florida Bay were 
analyzed for sulfur forms. Despite its position below marine strata, the peat displayed 
unexpectedly low pyrite concentrations. Pyrite values ranged from 0.03% to 1.06% (d. 
b.) with the highest concentrations occurring at a site in the northeastern part of the 
Bay adjacent to the mainland. Evidence suggests that the low pyrite concentrations are 
the result of the lack of available Fe and hence a failure to fix the available S in the 
sulfide form. Total S concentrations in freshwater peats are typically below 1.0% for 
the chase of the basal freshwater peats in the Bay, the total S concentration appears to 
be affected by the type of overlying sediment. When the freshwater peat was overlain 
by brackish peat, it was found that the S content was consistently higher than when 
overlain by marine carbonate muds. 


1979 0 

Davis, G. E. (1979) An assessment of fishery management options in Everglades National 
Park, Florida. Rep. T-541. South Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park, 
Homestead, FL. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This report 
presents an assessment which considers the biological and socio-economic impacts of 
several alternative fishery management actions for the Everglades National Park. The 
ultimate goal of this process is to provide the information upon which decisions can be 
made to produce regulations to effectively manage park fisheries in accordance with 
existing guidelines. Fish mortality must be compensated by natural reproduction and 
commercial and recreational fishing will be managed to maintain traditional age and size 
structure of fish populations. A conflict between both fisheries has intensified 
concerning the use of nets and unlimited harvest of gamefish species in the park. 
Alternative management options include prohibition of net fishing in all or certain parts 
of Florida Bay; establish specific bag limits for red drum, snook, sea trout, and gray 
snapper and/or a combination of species; prohibit harvest of lobster, stone crab and 
limit or restructure commercial fishing permits; and limit powerboat use and prohibit 
snook harvest in summer. Major socio-economic positive and negative impacts are 
given for each option. 


1979 0 

DeFelice, D. R. and G. W. Lynts (1979) Biotic and abiotic parameters affecting diversity in 
modern and ancient benthic diatom assemblages of Florida. Fla. Sci. .42. (Suppl.):44. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Study of 
benthic diatom communities in Florida Bay reveals that diversity in living diatom 
populations is a function of several biotic and abiotic parameters. Among the most 
important of these parameters is substrate, light quality, sediment particle size, and 


246 



distance from land. Examination of a core recovered from Florida Bay shows that 
although diatoms are quite common in surface sediment, they are absent immediately 
below the surface horizon, leaving sponge spicules as the only siliceous biogenic 
components in the sediment. Florida Bay, as a shallow water carbonate environment, is 
extremely undersaturated with respect to silica in the water column and at the 
sediment-water interface. It is believed that diatoms dissolve almost immediately after 
death, allowing for quick recycling and reutilization of silica in a silica starved 
environment. Rapid dissolution and recycling would subsequently impede any 
accumulation of dissolved silica in interstitial pore waters. 


1979 0 

Enos, P., and R. D. Perkins (1979) Evolution of Florida Bay from island stratigraphy. Geol. 

Soc. Amer. Bull. . 90:58-83. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] The sedimentary 
record of most Florida Bay islands is an asymmetric cycle consisting of a 
transgressive sequence followed by a regressive sequence, both formed during a 
continuous Holocene rise in sea level. The principal sedimentary environments of 
Florida Bay and the south Florida mainland are represented in the cycle by an upward 
succession of freshwater pond, coastal mangrove swamp, shallow bay (“lake"), mud 
bank, and island. Some parts of the cycle may be missing, but the sequence is always 
the same. Supratidal carbonate sedimentation on islands may develop from coastal 
mangrove swamp or by mangrove colonization of mud banks. Islands have developed 
from mud banks at many different times during the rise of sea level into Florida Bay, 
indicating that mud banks must have existed through out much of the Bay's history. 
Florida Bay probably will evolve into a coastal carbonate plain with inland mangrove 
swamps and freshwater ponds, very similar to the present southwest Florida mainland. 


1 979 

Irvine, A. B., J. E. Caffin, and H. I. Kochman (1981) Aerial surveys for manatees and 
dolphins in western peninsular Florida. US Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Land 
Management, Washington, DC. FWS/OBS-80/50. 21 pp. 

Low altitude aerial surveys were conducted at approximately monthly intervals from 
July to December 1979 to count West Indian manatees ( Trichechus manatus) and 
bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus) in western peninsular Florida. Sightings of sea 
turtles, turtle tracks, and a crocodile were also noted. A total of 554 manatees was 
observed in 297 groups. Fifty-eight percent of the manatees were sighted in the 
CollierMonroe Counties area in shallow, brackish inshore areas. A total of 1,383 
bottlenose dolphins was observed in 431 herds, including 700 (in 146 herds) in the Gulf 
of Mexico, 491 (in 185 herds) in bays, and 192 (in 100 herds) in marsh-river habitats. 
Fifty-eight sea turtles (including 45 loggerheads, Caretta caretta) and 30 sets of turtle 
tracks were counted. One crocodile, probably Crocodilus acutus was sighted in the 
Everglades National Park. 


1979 0 

May, J. A., and R. D. Perkins (1979) Endolithic infestation of carbonate substrates below 
the sediment-water interface. J, Sediment. Petrol. . 49(2):357-78. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Carbonate substrates prepared 
from conch shells and inorganic cleaved calcite were planted both at and below the 
sediment-water interface in a back barrier sound of North Carolina, within a mudbank 
of Florida Bay, and along a barrier reef transect in Belize. Scanning electron 
microscope (SEM) examination of plastic casts of microboring networks formed the 
primary basis of study, supplemented by light microscopy of isolated endolithic 
organisms and transmission electron microscope (TEM) examination of doubly embedded 


247 





material. A diverse assemblage of endolithic forms was detected in substrates planted 
at the sediment-water interface. In contrast, a less diverse and distinctly different 
assemblage of endolithic forms was found within substrates planted as much as 160 cm 
below the sediment-water interface. This is the first known report of such activity 
within buried marine sediments. The most abundant subsurface endoliths were two 
coccoid forms, separated on the basis of size, surficial texture, and morphology. Each 
type had several growth variants believed to be stages of binary, cellular fission. 
Other endolithic forms detected include a filamentous, irregular, polygonal network; an 
irregular flattened mass; and a regular, crenulate, flattened disc. TEM examination of 
one of the coccoid forms suggests a procaryonic blue-green algal or bacterial origin. 
The affinities of the other forms were unknown, but resemble endolithic traces 
attributed to fungi, bacteria, and Actinomycetes. The regular discoids and irregular 
flattened masses were found only in association with the filamentous form and may be 
reproductive bodies. Subsurface endoliths appear to be restricted to finer-grained, 
reducing sediments, and may be utilizing the more abundant interstitial nutrient supply 
as well as, or instead of, organic matrices within the mollusk substrates. Endolithic 
activity within buried marine carbonate sediments has important consequences in that 
it broadens the environmental conditions under which microborings may form. It also 
suggests that endolithic heterotrophs may significantly affect the surrounding 
microenvironment within sediments, and may result in porosity development during 
early sediment burial. 


1979 0 

Odell, D. K., E. D. Asper, J. Baucom, and L. H. Cornell (1979) A summary of information 
derived from the recent mass stranding of a herd of false killer whales, Pseudorca 
crassidens (Cetacea:Delphinidae). Biology of Marine Mammals: Insights Through Strandings. 
J. R. Geraci and D. J. St. Aubin (eds.). NTIS Rept. PB293-380. 207-22. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE.] [Same narrative as Odell et at. 1980).] 


1979 0 

Raymond, R. J., and T. D. Davies (1979) Content and form of sulfur in coal: A reflection of 

peat depositional environments. Geol. Soc. Amer. Abs. . 11 (7):501. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Chemical, 
optical, and electron microprobe techniques were used to study content and form of S in 
recent peat from Florida Bay and low volatile bituminous coal of Middle Pennsylvanian 
age from western Pennsylvania (Lower Kittanning seam). The results reveal three 
discernible periods of sulfur emplacement in the peat/coal cycle. The first and second 
occur during early stages of peat deposition when compaction is minor and water 
circulation is unrestricted. During this time the entire organic sulfur constituent will be 
emplaced, and depending upon the available sources of Fe and S, small euhedral crystals 
(0.5 - 15 ^m) and framboids (5 - 50 jam) of pyrite may be incorporated within peats. 
The first period of S emplacement reflects the peat depositional environment. If 
deposition occurs in freshwater, organic S will be low and pyrite may be entirely 
absent in marine water, the peat will have high organic S content and may have high 
pyrite content depending upon available iron. The second period occurs after peat 
deposition, but prior to coalification. If marine waters permeate a previously deposited 
peat, both the pyritic and organic S content will be increased. Due to high permeability 
of peat, S enhancement is greater in freshwater if it is overlain by marine peat marine 
rather than marine carbonate mud. The third period occurs after coalification, when 
permeability is mostly restricted to joint or cleat fractures. At this stage organic S 
content is not altered. If Fe and S are present in ground water, pyrite may be 
deposited, but only as fillings in fractures or pores. The massive form of this pyrite 
can be distinguished from the euhedral crystals and framboids typical of marine 
depositional environments. 


248 



1979 0 

Rosenfeld, J. K. (1979) Ammonium adsorption in nearshore anoxic sediments. Limnol. 

Oceanoar.. 24(2):356-64. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The distributions of dissolved, 
exchangeable, and fixed ammonium were measured in sediment cores from Long Island 
Sound, Florida Bay, and Pettaquamscutt River, Rl, and in laboratory experiments to 
determine the importance of ammonium adsorption in anoxic sediments. Two sites were 
sampled in Florida Bay, at Ramshorn and Mangrove, north of Tavernier. Apparently, a 
dynamic equilibrium exists between dissolved, exchangeable and fixed ammonium in 
sediments. The concentration of exchangeable ammonium increased linearly with 
increasing concentrations of dissolved ammonium. Exchangeable ammonium adsorption 
was rapid, reversible, and predominantly associated with the organic matter rather 
than the clay minerals. The concentration of fixed ammonium also increased with 
increasing concentrations of dissolved ammonium, but this change, due to diagenesis, is 
small compared to the total fixed ammonium in sediments and is also smaller than the 
corresponding increase in exchangeable ammonium. The ammonium adsorption 
coefficient for Long Island Sound sediment was between one and two: of the ammonium 
produced by organic matter decomposition, as much or twice as much is associated 
with the sediment as is dissolved in the interstitial water. Therefore, ammonium 
adsorption by sediments is an important process in the diagenesis of nitrogen in 
nearshore anoxic sediments. 


1979 0 

Rosenfeld, J. K. (1979) Interstitial water and sediment chemistry of two cores from 

Florida Bay. J. Sediment. Petrol. . 49(3):989-94. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The interstitial water and 
sediment chemistry of cores from two different environments in Florida Bay, 
mangrove swamp and submerged mudbank, were analyzed. The interstitial water 
profiles showed that sulfate reduction, along with the resulting ammonium, phosphate, 
and alkalinity production, was occurring in Florida Bay sediments. However, the sulfate 
concentration profile was not typical of other anoxic environments, in that the sulfate 
concentration increases below a depth of approximately 20 cm. The ammonium, 
phosphate, and alkalinity concentrations all decrease below this depth. It is suggested 
that these interstitial water profiles might be explained in terms of a balance between 
the mixing of the interstitial water with the overlying seawater and decreasing rates 
of organic matter decomposition with depth. The rates of organic matter decomposition 
were measured in laboratory experiments, which indicated that sulfate reduction and 
ammonium generation were much faster (a factor of 3 to 9 times) between 0 and 10 cm 
than between 10 and 20 cm. Organic carbon, organic nitrogen, and amino acid profiles 
showed decreases as large as a factor of 2 in the organic content of Florida Bay 
sediments in the top 60 cm of the sediment column. 


1979 0 

Rosenfeld, J. K. (1979) Amino acid diagenesis and adsorption in nearshore anoxic 
sediments. Limnol. Oceanoar.. 24(6): 1014-21. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Amino acid diagenesis and free 
amino acid adsorption by sediments were studied in cores of nearshore anoxic 
sediments from Long Island Sound, Florida Bay, and Pettaquamscutt River, Rl. Two 
sites were sampled in Florida Bay, at Ramshorn and Mangrove Keys, north of 
Tavernier. Both organic nitrogen and amino acid content decreased by a factor of about 
two in the top meter of the sediment. Individual amino acid profiles showed that the 
acidic and neutral amino acids, despite their different chemical composition, appeared 


249 






to be equally utilized in both clastic and carbonate sediments. This result differs from 
the preferential utilization of certain amino acids generally found in deep-sea 
sediments. The results of laboratory adsorption experiments suggest that in clay 
sediments, free amino acids are predominantly adsorbed by the organic matter in the 
sediment rather than by the clay minerals. However, in the carbonate sediments, the 
organic matter seems to inhibit the adsorption of free amino acids on the carbonate 
grains. 


1979 

Schmidt, T. W. (1979) Preliminary observations on fish predator-prey interactions in the 

Shark River estuary, Everglades National Park. Second Conf. on Natl. Parks, San Francisco, 

CA. November, 1979. 63. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY.] In this paper, preliminary results are reported on a fish food habits 
study currently in progress in the Shark River estuary, Everglades National Park. The 
purposes of the study were to obtain quantitative information on the energy pathways 
and trophic interrelationships of dominant, non-game, epibenthic fish, shrimp, and 
crabs. It is part of a larger project to identify the driving variables on the biotic 
resources within the coastal ecosystems of South Florida National Park Service areas. 
These data are essential in our understanding of how these estuaries respond to 
external parameters, fishing pressure, and natural or man-made environmental 
variation. The selection of study sites and standard sampling techniques focused on the 
principal prey items of pinfish Lagodon rhomboides, silver jenny Eucinostomus gula, 
silver perch Bairdiella chrysura, lane snapper Lutjanus synagris, pigfish Orthopristis 
chrysoptera, blue crab Callinectes sapidus, and pink shrimp Penaeus duorarum. Types 
of sampling gear employed, the design, fabrication, and installation of mechanical hard¬ 
ware required to accommodate the samplers, and the procedures used, including water 
quality parameters measured, sampling frequency and intervals, are discussed. A 
literature search on potential predator-prey organisms was conducted through park and 
university libraries. A rapid, standardized approach for laboratory procedures was 
developed utilizing the same methods to measure the food organisms and those taken in 
concurrent biotic surveys. Required information on the individual- predators included 
numbers, length, weight, sex, reproductive condition, and species of food organisms 
being eaten. A data manipulation and processing system was developed on a Wang 2200 
minicomputer to store and retrieve stomach contents data sets and to compute and 
display the statistical summaries of the prey organisms including numerical and percent 
composition (frequency of occurrence), abundance and biomass of the food items. In 
addition, the storage of important life history information on other predator character¬ 
istics was facilitated. Prey organism collected between March and June, 1979, 
indicated that most of the diet items fell into three categories: mussels Brachidontes 
exustus : polychate fragments; and gammarid or caprellid amphipods. Future work plans 
are to determine if feeding preferences are due to differences in prey availability 
resulting from natural or man-made environmental variation. With this information in 
hand the park managers who are responsible for managing natural resources can direct 
their interests towards understanding what regulates the stability of these 
ecosystems. 


1979 0 

Tisserand Delclos, L. (1979) Foraminiferes de deux localites de la baie de Floride et des 
environs; Joe Kemp Key et Key Biscayne. (Foraminifera from two localities in Florida and 
vicinity; Joe Kemp Key and Key Biscayne) Notes du Laboratoire de Paleontoloqie . 4(2): 19- 
25. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE. CITATION IN FRENCH.] This 
citation discusses foraminifera from Joe Kemp Key and Key Biscayne. 


250 



1979 0 

Wanless, H. R. (1979) Role of physical sedimentation in carbonate-bank growth. Am. Assoc. 

Petrol. Geol, Bull. . 63(3):547. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Carbonate 
mudbanks of central Florida Bay contain three types of sediment wedges which provide 
evidence that pulses of rapid physical sedimentation are a dominant cause for bank 
growth and migration. Most dramatic are layered to laminated wedges of carbonate 
mudstone flanking eastern, southern, or western bank margins . Depositional units are 
.5 to 1.5 m thick and compose up to 70% of the existing bank. Units have erosional 
basal contacts: basal shelly sand grades upward to a layered laminated mudstone 
containing no pellets, no burrowing, no seagrass rootlets, and few sand size skeletal 
grains. Three features suggest rapid disposition: vertical escape burrows extending 
upward from the basal sand, vertical smooth-walled water escape fractures in the 
lower part, and abundant seagrass blades incorporated into the layers. The second type 
of wedge is a layered, pelleted mudstone to packstone otherwise similar to that 
described above. The third type of wedge is a bioturbated, soft-pellet wackestone to 
packstone as much as 1 m thick and flanking only southern bank margins. It contains 
horizontal to inclined seagrass rhizomes throughout and has minor autochthonous 
mollusks. The layered wedges are interpreted to record rapid sudtidal sedimentation 
during rare super storms (extreme hurricanes), the first type from storms of 
sufficient violence to destroy most pellets. The third wedge type records persistent 
lee-side accumulation from lesser hurricanes and winter storms. This deposition, 
although rapid, is slow enough to be in continuous association with a seagrass- 
community influence. 

1979, 1983 - 1984 

Zieman, J. C., J. W. Fourqurean, and R. L. Iverson (1989) Distribution, abundance and 

productivity of seagrasses and macroalgae in Florida Bay. Symp. on Florida Bay: A 

Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1 ):292-311. 

The distribution, abundance, and productivity of submerged macrophytes were 
measured in Florida Bay to determine the total productivity and seagrass habitat 
distribution throughout the region using aerial photography and ground verification, 
benthic community characterization, 14 C uptake studies, drift material sampling and 
other techniques. The field work took place during 1983 and 1984 except for the drift 
material sampling which took place in 1979. The sediment, water level and water 
temperature at these locations was described by Holmquist et al. (1989) and the 
decapod and stomatopod communities by Holmquist et al. (1989). Thalassia testudinum 
was widely distributed and was the dominant macrophyte species in the 1,660 km 2 of 
seagrass beds contained in the bay. Halodule wrightii was also common, but had 
standing crop significantly less than Thalassia at all sample locations. Syringodium 
filiforme grew mainly in areas with strong oceanic influence, especially along the south 
and west margins of the Bay. Macroalgae were a small percentage of the total 
macrophyte biomass. Gradients in environmental and biological variables extended from 
southwest to northeast Florida Bay. Water clarity, water exchange, and sediment depth 
were all greatest in the south and west portion of the bay and decreased towards the 
northeast corner of the bay. The seagrass standing crop varied from between 60 and 
125 g dw m‘ 2 in the southwest to between 0 and 30 g dw m‘ 2 in the northeast. Total 
seagrass leaf standing crop was 8 x 10 10 g dw in Florida Bay, 90% of which was 

Thalassia leaf material. Thalassia mean leaf productivity was 0.97 g dw nr 2 d‘\ with 

higher values in the southwest and lower values in the northeast portions of the bay. 
Approximately I .7 x 10 9 g dw d' 1 of Thalassia leaf tissue was produced in Florida Bay 
during the summer. Thalassia had about the same leaf productivity on a per gram leaf 

dry weight basis throughout the different environments of Florida Bay, therefore 


251 





variations in areal leaf productivity were caused by variations in leaf standing crop and 
not by variations in leaf specific productivity. Distribution, abundance, and 
productivity data were used to divide the bay into six community types. 

1979 - 1980 

Bert, T. M., J. T. Tilmant, J. W. Dodrill and G. E. Davis (1986) Aspects of the population 
dynamics and biology of the stone crab (Menippe mercenaria) in Everglades and Biscayne 
National Parks as determined by trapping. Rep. SFRC-86/04. South Florida Research 
Center, Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 77 pp. 

Stone crabs (Menippe mercenaria) were trapped on a lunar cycle (full moon) from June 
1979 to June 1980 to investigate the population biology and life history of the 
organism in South Florida marine waters managed by the National Park Service. 
Seventeen stations, located throughout the coastal regions of Everglades National Park 
and Biscayne National Park, were fished for an entire year. Five additional stations 
were fished the last nine months of the study. An array of morphometric and biological 
data was taken on each crab captured. Salinity, temperature, water clarity, principal 
fouling biota, and bottom type were recorded at each station during sampling. Relative 
abundance, proportion of females, and number of juveniles were highest in Everglades 
National Park marine waters from Lostmans River northward. Also, mean size of both 
sexes was generally smallest in that region. Progressing southward along the Gulf of 
Mexico and east into Florida Bay, relative abundance of both adults and juveniles 
decreased, proportion of males increased, and mean size of both sexes became larger. 
Juveniles were never found at most stations sampled in Florida Bay. Biscayne National 
Park resembled Florida Bay in number and size of adults, proportion of males, and lack 
of juveniles. Juvenile distribution and abundance was directly correlated with relative 
abundance of adults and proportion of females in the trapped population. The primary 
source of adults in Florida Bay appears to be a very slow movement of crabs from the 
Gulf of Mexico progressively farther into Florida Bay. The stone crab population in 
Biscayne National Park may be dispersing from farther north along the Atlantic coast of 
Florida. Temporal changes in relative abundance, sex ratio, and size class frequency of 
female stone crabs captured were strongly correlated to various aspects of 
reproductive activity. Changes in values of these parameters for males were related to 
changes in water temperature and female reproductive activity. Differences in relative 
abundance and mean size of both sexes also corresponded to commercial fishing season 
near the seaward limits of Everglades National Park in the Gulf of Mexico, and to the 
number, proportion, and mean size of males in commercially fished areas of Florida 
Bay. Because of the simultaneous occurrence of natural and artificial factors affecting 
the trapped population over time, it is difficult to attribute observed variations to any 
particular factor. As determined by trapping, changes in the population biology of stone 
crabs in Everglades and Biscayne National Parks occurring during the year are cyclic, 
and the population recovers to its initial state by the onset of the next year. Female 
stone crabs produce eggs throughout the summer. Younger females peak in egg 
production in late summer and older females in late spring. Young females molt and 
possibly mate more frequently than older females, but egg production of the young 
segment of the female population is reduced. By age three, all females have apparently 
reached sexual maturity. Molting occurs from fall through spring in young females and 
molt frequency declines with increasing age until, at age four, females molt annually in 
the fall. Females increase in carapace width about 10 mm with each molt and can live to 
about age seven. 

1979 - 1980 

Evink, G. L. (1981) Hydrological study in the area of Cross Key, Florida. Rep. FL-ER-16-81. 
Florida State Dept, of Transportation, Bureau of Environment, Tallahassee, FL. 


252 


[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This study is 
designed to evaluate the need for additional openings through the causeways in the area 
of Cross Key, from the Florida mainland to Key Largo. Information on this area is 
needed to develop plans for four-laning this section of US 1 in relation to current and 
past water management practices involving circulation, hypersalinity, and changes in 
freshwater flow. It was found that salinities on either side of Cross Key may be high 
during the dry season and under drought conditions. It was recommended that no further 
structures were needed to obtain relief from hypersaline conditions in the Cross Key 
area. 

1979 - 1980 

Gruber, S. H. (1982) Role of the lemon shark, Negaprion brevirostris (Poey), as a predator 

in the tropical marine environment: a multidisciplinary study. Florida Sci. . 45:46-75. 

Sharks are numerically important members of many marine communities, yet little is 
known of their role in these ecosystems. Recent technical developments in laboratory 
and field have facilitated investigation of the autecology of the lemon shark Negaprion 
brevirostris (Poey). This littoral shark is abundant, lives well in captivity and is 
ideally suited for investigation. During 1979 and 1980, 984 young sharks were marked 
and released during a study of population dynamics. Each was injected with tetracycline 
for age validation. We tracked individual sharks for hundreds of kilometers via 
ultrasonic telemetry thus determining activity rates, movements, home range and diel 
periods. We evaluated blood gas parameters, food intake, digestion, growth, resting and 
routine metabolism in the laboratory. These data provide estimates of the energy 
budget of the lemon shark and form a basis for understanding the flow of energy from 
environment to shark. Our tentative conclusion is that an adult lemon shark must 
remove nearly 1500 g of fish daily (1.6 x 10 6 calories) to account for its vital 
activities. 

1979 - 1980 

Lutz, P. L., and A. C. Dunbar-Cooper (1982) The nest environment of the American 

crocodile, Crocodylus acutus. Rep. T-671. South Florida Research Center, Everglades 

National Park, Homestead, FL. 38 pp. 

In the nesting seasons of 1979 and 1980 selected crocodile nests from Florida Bay 
were studied to examine the nest environment throughout incubation. Nest 
temperatures ranged from 29.0 - 35.5°C, the higher temperatures more associated 
with the latter part of the season. A small diurnal fluctuation was recorded over 25 
days of monitoring a normal sand nest. Nest soil water values varied considerably 
(4.89 - 36.14%). Marl tended have higher amounts of water throughout the incubation 
period. All eggs lost water over the incubation period. The greatest loss appeared to 
occur towards the end of the season. The amount of water loss is determined by the egg 
shell permeability and the water vapor gradient across the egg shell, the latter being 
dependent on the hydration of the soil. In the most complete set of data the average 
water loss found was very similar to that found for birds (15%). The average birth 
weight of the hatchlings was 0.64 of the initial egg mass, also very similar to that 
found for birds. The oxygen diffusivity of sand was much greater than that of marl. In 
marl the diffusivity was strongly influenced by water content. In all nests there was a 
decline in oxygen and rise in C0 2 over incubation, i.e. developing embryos will naturally 
experience hypoxic, hypercapnic conditions. The changes were very variable between 
nests, though they appeared to be greater in mud nests. It appears that in several cases 
minimum nest oxygen levels were reached before the end of incubation. It is suggested 
that the metabolic rate of the nest clutch of Crocodilus acutus regulated by oxygen and 
carbon dioxide levels in the nest. This allows C. acutus to use soils of quite different 
and varying gas permeabilities for nesting sites. 


253 



1979 - 1980 

Lutz, P. L., and A. C. Dunbar-Cooper (1984) Nest environment of the American crocodile, 
Crocodylus acutus. Copeia . 1984( 1): 153-61. 

In the southern tip of the Everglades, Florida, a small population of the American 
crocodile, Crocodylus acutus builds nests in two quite different substrates, sand/shell 
and marl. Changes in temperature, soil, water and gaseous composition were monitored 
in selected nests throughout incubation, and the gaseous resistance of the soils 
measured. Temperatures increased from approximately 30°C to a maximum of 34°C 
over incubation and no differences were found between the two nest types. The marl 
nests had a higher water content than the sand/shell nests and had a significantly 
higher resistance to gaseous diffusion. In both nest types there was a decline in P0 2 and 
an increase in PC0 2 over incubation, with greater extremes reached in the marl nests. 
In sand/shell nests, eggs lost 15% of initial wet weight over incubation. It is suggested 
that the crocodile embryo adapts to the characteristics of the different substrates by 
matching its metabolic rate to the gaseous environment of the nest. Important 
similarities in bird and crocodilian egg development suggest that the birds have been 
highly conservative in this feature of their biology. 

1979 - 1980 

Schmidt, T. W. (1993) Community characteristics of dominant forage fishes and decapods 
in the Whitewater Bay/Shark River estuary, Everglades National Park, Florida. Rep. 
NPS/SEREVER/NRTR-93/12. South Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park, 
Homestead, FL. 67 pp. 

This report presents the results of studies on the community characteristics (relative 
abundance, seasonal occurrence, size, reproductive activity, and food habitats) of the 
following dominant epibenthic forage fish and decapod crustacean species: pink shrimp 
(Penaeus duorarum), blue crab (Callinectes sapidus), pinfish (Lagodon rhomboides), 
silver jenny (Eucinostomus gula), pigfish (Orthopristis chrysoptera), and silver perch 
(Bairdiella chrysura). Juveniles and adults were collected with trawl and gill nets from 
five sites among open water bay habitats in the Whitewater Bay-Shark River system, 
March 1979 through May 1980. Macrobenthos sampling was usually conducted at each 
site on the day fish collections were made. Silver jenny, silver perch, and blue crab 
were classified as residents in the estuary while pink shrimp, pinfish, and pigfish were 
seasonal visitors which spawn offshore. Juvenile pink shrimp, the most abundant 
animal studied, occurred year-around, most abundantly during summer, fall, and 
winter, while pigfish showed abundance maxima in spring/summer. Blue crab and silver 
perch occurred most often in winter-spring while nearly equal numbers of silver jenny 
and pinfish occurred year-around. All species, except for silver jenny, occurred in 
greatest numbers at the Clearwater Pass site in mid-Whitewater Bay. This site, 
reflecting potential food sources for these species, had: (1) the greatest macrobenthic 
diversity, and abundance maximas of crustaceans (amphipoda), polychaetes, and 
mollusks (bivalves), and (2) the most dense vegetative cover of all sites sampled. 
Spatial and temporal variations in abundance of the dominant epibenthic species were 
explained, in part, by spatial and temporal patterns of food availability and habitat 
quality (i.e. sediment, vegetative cover). Salinity and temperature may only be 
autocorrelates with spawning activities and recruitment, and were not shown to be 
important limiting factors for these species. In this study, catches of small juveniles of 
pink shrimp and pigfish suggests post-larval settlement at Clearwater Pass, whereas 
catches of young silver jenny and pinfish indicates post-larval settlement in eastern 
Whitewater Bay for these species. Except for blue crab, catches of larger specimens of 
all species studied occurred at the deep water, high salinity Oyster Bay site. Diets of 
seasonal visitors (pink shrimp, pinfish and pigfish) suggested omnivory, with feeding 


254 



primarily on crustaceans (amphipods and isopods) and vegetation (marine 
alga/seagrasses), whereas resident species exhibited carnivorous feeding habits, 
consuming mainly crustaceans (amphipods and shrimp), polychaetes, and mollusks 
(bivalves). Spatial, temporal, and ontogenetic variations in foods habits were found 
among the species sampled. Shrimp exhibited dramatic differences in diet with predator 
size, site, and season; highest feeding activity was found in the fall-winter period 
while feeding diversity was lowest at the inner-most sampling site (Tarpon Bay). 
Silver jenny diet varied with season and site, while pinfish varied by season and size 
and pigfish by predator size. Variations in diet with site and season were attributed to 
food availability and habitat structure while trophic ontogeny was related to 
fish/shrimp morphogenesis. These species were sufficiently opportunistic in their food 
habits to take advantage of the availability of major prey groups found at the sampled 
sites. In summary, variations in abundance of the dominant species among sites were 
related to feeding habits as a reflection of prey availability and vegetative cover, while 
recruitment and reproductive activity were associated with season effects. It may be 
that patterns of estuarine abundance, as reported in this study, are influenced by 
long-term evolutionary adaption than by short-term ecological or behavioral response 
to environmental parameters. 

1979 - 1981 

Brown, J. W. (1987) Studies of humic and fulvic acid dynamics in coastal marine waters of 

South Florida. Mar. Environ. Res. . 21:163-74. 

Humic (HA) and fulvic (FA) acid concentrations (HA + FA) were monitored over a two- 
year period in different areas of Florida and Biscayne Bays. The Florida Bay sampling 
site was north of Islamorada. These studies were undertaken in an effort to determine 
fluctuations in the quantity and chemical nature of humic substances in productive 
coastal environments in South Florida and, retrospectively, to discern the extent of 
potential terrestrial influences. Additional studies were undertaken with material from 
a South Florida mangrove environment and material isolated from offshore Gulf Stream 
waters. Dramatic fluctuations in humic substances were observed in all coastal areas. 
In east-central Florida Bay, for example, humic materials (HA + FA, collectively) were 
found to fluctuate as much as eleven fold. In both Biscayne Bay and Florida Bay, these 
fluctuations appeared to follow the artificially-controlled input to water from the South 
Florida mainland. The ratios of FA to HA varied dramatically between terrestrially- 
influenced and oligotrophic marine environments (i.e. a progressive increase of the 
FA/HA ratio with this transition). In all marine locations studied, coarse particulate 
humic substances were low in comparison to the dissolved component of this chemical 
class. The sampling sites were monitored at 6 - 8 week intervals during 1979 to 1981. 


1980 0 

Aisner, J. A. (1980) Origin and development of Arsenic Bank, a Holocene biotherm in 
southwestern Florida Bay. Geol. Soc. Amer. Abs. . 12(4): 169. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Arsenic Bank is 
a Holocene biotherm located in southwestern Florida Bay, approximately 9 km north- 
northwest of Long Key. Fourteen cores were analyzed to determine the stratigraphy 
and depositional process of the shoal. Sediment samples from the shoal surface were 
also analyzed to determine recent modes of sedimentation and biotic communities. 
Arsenic Bank is composed of alternating beds of coarse coral, algal and molluscan 
sediments with subordinate plant, foraminiferal and ostracode debris. A thick carpet of 
Thalassia, Porites, Halimeda and sponges blankets the shoal and allows for sediment 
entrapment, shoal growth and stability. These current and wave resistant organisms 
form a loose, interlocking framework where coarse-grained molluscan and Halimeda 
sediment is entrapped. Sediment texture suggests that the various modes of 


255 




sedimentation setting on Arsenic Bank throughout Holocene time have not changed 
significantly. These modes of sedimentation include in situ accumulation of wave¬ 
generated skeletal debris and allochthonous debris, including Pleistocene rock 
fragments, from adjacent areas. The presence of large Pleistocene rock fragments 
indicates that storms account for significant episodic deposition on the bioherm. 
Vertical and lateral accretion of the bank is the result of the framework organisms 
adapting to areas subject to high wave and current energy. 


1980 0 

Aisner, J. A. (1980) Origin and development of Arsenic Bank, a Holocene biotherm in 
southwestern Florida Bay. Fla. Sci.. 43(suppl. 1):43-4. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. Narrative same as in Aisner (1980).] 


1980 0 

Davies, T. D., and W. Spackman (1980) The palynology of the peats of Florida Bay. 

Palvnoloov . 4:238. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Five hundred 
and seventy-three sites were probed in Florida Bay to establish the thickness and areal 
extent of Recent sub-marl peat. Cores were taken from Ninemile Bank, Spy Key- 
Panhandle Key Bank, Joe Kemp Key, Cluett Key, Jim Foot Key, Samphire Key, Man-of- 
War Key, Shell Key, Panhandle Key, Spy Key, Russell Key, Eagle Key, Crane Key, and 
Pigeon Key. The peat is more extensive than heretofore recorded and commonly occurs 
as the basal sediment beneath numerous islands and "banks." Normally, the peat is 
overlain by a marine carbonate but in one case it forms the entire sedimentary 
sequence of 11 ft 5 in. Six cores were investigated petrographically and 
palynologically. In all, a clearly defined transgressive sequence was encountered with 
the basal peats representing freshwater environments of both marsh and hammock 
types. The freshwater peats are overlain by brackish and then by "marine" peats, 
unless the peat sequence is truncated by an unconformity, in which case the overlying 
sediment is a marine carbonate. The latter may contain one or more lenses of 
Rhizophora or Avicennia peat. In many instances, the initially-formed peat had been 
extensively intruded by roots of younger plants growing in overlying environments, 
which were substantially different from the environments responsible for the original 
peat. This usually results in considerable degradation of the original peat and this, 
compounded with the addition of new plant material, produces a new "secondary" peat 
type. Hence, proper interpretation of the true ecological sequence represented by the 
peat sediment becomes difficult. Study of the pollen content of each peat type enables 
the accurate recognition of the environment responsible for formation of the "primary" 
peat type and thus complements the petrographic approach to the study of phytogenic 
sediments. 


1980 0 

Davis, G. E. (1980) Juvenile spiny lobster management or how to make the most of what 
you get. Fisheries, 5(2):57-62. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Larval production 
and survival, equitable allocation and efficient harvest among fishermen, and 
maximization of yield per postlarval recruit are identified as the major elements 
amenable to management actions in spiny lobster fisheries. A step down diagram is 
provided which illustrates the logical relationship among the three elements, the 
overall fishery objective of an optimum yield and a description of the relationship 
between the factors involved in improving the yield per postlarval recruit. The factors 
discussed in the paper are: minimum harvest size, growth values, mortality rates and 


256 




nursery sanctuaries. National Parks' provide protection for about 1/3 of the juvenile 
spiny lobster habitat in south Florida. 


1980 0 

DeFelice, D. R. and G. W. Lynts (1980) Epiphytic diatoms as r-selectors in Florida Bay, 
Florida. Fla. Sci.. 43 (Suppl.):23. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Examination of 
epiphytic diatom populations of Florida Bay provides an excellent opportunity to test 
the applicability of r selection to low trophic level organisms. Cocconeis placentula 
Ehrenberg, the dominant epiphyte, exemplifies many of the characteristics attributed 
to the theoretical V endpoint species. Specimens of this species are small, considered 
degenerate, and live in an unpredictable and ephemeral environment ( Thalassia 
testudinum grass blades). The epiphytic assemblage is characterized by high 
productivity and low equitability. Recolonization is periodically necessary due to short 
lived nature of the grass blade substratum. Strategy for Cocconeis placentula is to put 
all possible matter and energy into reproduction with the smallest practicable amount 
into each individual offspring. The r endpoint represents an ecologic vacuum with no 
competition. Production is regulated solely by maximum intrinsic rate of natural 
increase (r max). 


1980 0 

Dunson, W. A. (1980) The relation of sodium and water balance to survival in seawater of 
estuarine and fresh-water races of the snakes Nerodia fasciata, N. sipedon and N. valida. 
Copeia . 1980(2):268-80. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Subspecies of the Florida banded 
water snake ( Negroid fascinate) vary markedly in their tolerance to seawater. The 
freshwater race N. f. pictiventris differs physiologically from the estuarine races N. f. 
compressicauda and N. f. clarki in several, important ways. When placed in seawater, it 
has a higher body water influx and efflux, a higher body sodium influx, and its skin is 
more permeable to water and sodium. It is likely that the high rate of sodium influx, 
immediately after placement in seawater, is the primary factor leading to drinking of 
seawater and subsequent death. Thus the distinction between freshwater and estuarine 
races is not simply behavioral, as was previously believed, but is dependent also on 
physiological differences. Other freshwater snakes studied ( N. sipedon, Regina 
septemvittata) also had greater rates of water influx than found in marine or estuarine 
species. The queen snake (R. septemvittata) has the highest rates of sodium influx and 
water exchange. Immediately after immersion in seawater, water exchange is 
primarily through the skin and sodium uptake through the mouth. Interbreeds between N. 
f. pictiventris and N. f. compressicauda had the seawater tolerance of the estuarine 
race. It appears that these estuarine subspecies are in the process of evolving into true 
marine species. They may not have a salt gland, but they are capable of surviving long 
penods in saline habitats. A similar evolutionary development may be occurring among 
coastal populations of the Mexican water snake N. valida. Some specimens of N. f. 
compressicauda were collected in Florida Bay. 


1980 0 

Enos, P. (1980) Stratigraphic sequences in a shelf lagoon: Florida Bay. Geol. Soc. Amer. 
12(2):33. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] A carbonate 
facies mosaic is being deposited in Florida Bay, which is characterized by variable 
salinity, low energy and compartmentalizatlon by mudbanks. Lithofacies are: (1) calcite 
'mudstone' of freshwater ponds; (2) peat from coastal mangrove swamps; (3) 
aragonitic skeletal packstone lag from intrabank basins; (4) skeletal-pelletal 


257 






wackestone, laminated mudstone, and packstone from mudbanks; and (5) stromatolitic 
wackestone from supratidal islands. Some or all of these components are stacked in the 
order named into an asymmetric sequence, transgressive through elements 1-3 and 
regressive through thicker mudbank and supratidal phases. Predominately vertical 
accretion forms banks and islands which then act as nuclei for lateral accretion. The 
resultant facies mosaic is complicated in detail but coherent in overall aspect because 
of the predictable sequence. This sequence is accumulating over a microkarstic 
disconformity surface. The semi-restricted setting originates primarily from 
depositional topography of the previous (Pleistocene) cycle but is influenced by 
evolving depositional topography of the present regime. Small-scale depositional relief 
producing diverse and compartmentalized environment was probably as commonplace in 
ancient semi-restricted carbonate settings as in modern examples, but could only be 
detected in the record with extremely detailed stratigraphic control. Depositional 
regimes similar to Florida Bay will apparently be perpetuated in south Florida by 
incremental compartmentalization and filling of the shallow inner shelf of the Gulf of 
Mexico. On the small scale of mudbank accretion as well as on the larger scale of 
incremental shelf filling, deposition is more episodic than continuous. 


1 980 

Hunt, J. H., W. G. Lyons, and F. S. Kennedy (1986) Effects of exposure and confinement on 
spiny lobsters, Panulirus argus, used as attractants in the Florida trap fishery. US NMFS. 
Fish. Bull. . 84(1):69-76. 

Traps in the south Florida spiny lobster fishery were baited with live sublegal-sized 
lobsters (shorts), many of which are exposed for considerable periods aboard vessels 
before being placed in traps and returned to the sea. Average mortality rate of lobsters 
exposed 0.5 1, 2, and 4 hr in controlled field tests was 26.3% after 4 weeks of 
confinement. About 42% of observed mortality occurred within 1 week after exposure, 
indicating exposure to be a primary cause of death. Neither air temperature during 
exposure nor periodic dampening with seawater had significant effects on mortality 
rate. Mortality among confined lobsters increased markedly in the Atlantic ocean side 
but not in Florida Bay during the fourth week of confinement following exposure, 
probably because more natural food organisms entering traps from nearby seagrass 
beds delayed starvation at the latter site. Mortality caused by baiting traps with shorts 
may produce economic losses in dockside landings estimated to range from $1.5 to $9.0 
million annually. Mortality studies were conducted four times during 1980 in Florida 
Bay, and six times during 1981 and 1982 in the Atlantic reefs. 


1980 0 

Mitchell-Tapping, H. J. (1980) Depositional history of the oolite of the Miami limestone 
formation. Fla. Sci. . 43(2): 11 6-25. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The Pleistocene Miami Limestone 
Formation presently consists of the Miami Oolite and Key Largo Reef facies. It is 
proposed here that the Miami Oolite facies be considered as two separate units within 
the Miami Limestone Formation and penecontemporaneous to the Key Largo Reef 
limestone. The lower unit is called the Key West Oolite and the upper is called the Fort 
Dallas Oolite. The Fort Dallas unit is considered an eolian dune field formed by the 
breakdown of various oolitic marine bars across the mouth of Florida Bay, while the 
Key West unit is the remnants of some of these bars formed behind the Key Largo Reef 
in Sangamon time. This new division of the Miami Limestone Formation was based on 
field outcrops, above and below the water, the fossils, well cuttings, and an SEM study 
of the ooids. 


258 





1980 

Stoneburner, D. L., and J. A. Kushlan (1984) Heavy metal burdens in American crocodile 
eggs from Florida Bay, Florida, USA. J. Herpetol. . 18(2): 192-3. 

Nine unhatched eggs of the American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) were collected in 
Florida Bay in 1980 and the levels of heavy metals determined. The egg samples were 
partitioned into shell and albumin-yolk mass. These two samples were lyophilized and 
metal level determinations, with the exception of Hg, were made after HN0 3 /H 2 0 2 
digestion of the lyophilized material using inductively coupled plasma spectrometer. 
NIST SRM 1577, Bovine Liver, was used as part of the quality assurance protocol. The 
elements determined were Al, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Sr, Mo, Cd, Hg, and Pb. 


1980 

Ullman, W. J., and R. C. Alter (1985) The geochemistry of iodine in near-shore carbonate 
sediments. Geochim. Cosmochim. A. . 49(4):967-78. 

The total concentration of I is commonly higher in surface terrigenous sediments 
relative to more deeply buried material. Diagenetic release, loss of dissolved I during 
burial, and back-reaction of I with the solid phase under oxidizing conditions contribute 
to I enrichment near the sediment/water interface. In order to differentiate between 
scavenging of dissolved I by organic matter or metal oxides, the diagenetic behavior of 
I was examined in the Fe-poor carbonate sediments of Florida Bay. In this environment, 
I is released by organic decomposition at l/C ratios similar to terrigenous 
environments (~0.5 mmole mole' 1 ), transported to the oxygenated sediment/water 
interface, and lost to the overlying water. The dissolved I flux from these deposits is 
roughly equivalent to the production rate within the deposit (-10 nmole m' 2 day' 1 at 
28°C). No significant enrichment was observed in the solid phase. Dissolved iodine 
transport within the sediment column may also be controlled by non-steady-state 
lateral diffusion into burrows. These observations, together with laboratory 
experiments which demonstrate lO 3 * scavenging by Fe-oxyhydroxides at pH < 8, imply 
that enrichment of I in terrigenous surface sediments results predominantly from the 
initial oxidation of I* to lO 3 ' by microorganisms, followed by sorption on Fe oxides. Upon 
burial and reduction during anaerobic decomposition, this metal-associated I is released 
to solution, in a manner similar to phosphate. Sampling took place at Crab Key Bank and 
Captain's Key Bank in 1980. 

1980 - 1981 

Mazzotti, F. J., J. A. Kushlan, and A. C. Dunbar-Cooper (1988) Desiccation and cryptic nest 
flooding as probable causes of egg mortality in the American crocodile, Crocodylus acutus, 
in Everglades National Park, Florida. Fla. Sci. . 51(2):65-71. 

Flooding and desiccation probably caused mortality of eggs of the American Crocodile 
(Crocodylus acutus) in Everglades National Park. Flooding was subterranean with no 
sign evident above ground. Apparent desiccation occurred in a year (1981) of 
abnormally low rainfall. The timing of nesting seems to be rigidly scheduled, with the 
developmental period bracketed by possibly desiccating and flooding conditions. The 
success of this strategy is shown by the relatively low rate of embryonic mortality in 
most years. 

1980 - 1983 

Merriam, D. F., C. E. Sorensen and R. V. Jenkins (1987) Modern carbonate sediments in 
Shell Key Basin, Florida Bay. Symp. on the Geology of South Florida. Miami Geol. Soc. Mem. . 
3:73-90. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Shell Key Basin, 
bordered on the east by Upper Matecumbe Key and mangrove islands on the west within 
the boundaries of the Everglades National Park in Florida Bay was studied through a 


259 






period of two years. Water and sediment samples were collected from 13 stations in 
the Basin; additional sites were sampled in north central Florida Bay for comparative 
purposes. It was found through sonic depth profiles and sediment cores that the same 
microkarst features are under the basin as are exposed farther north on the mainland. 
Analysis of results indicate that sediments accumulating in the basin has a bimodal size 
distribution from Penicillus secretions and abraded bioclastic debris. Storm-driven 
currents are responsible for sediment distribution and composition. In general, the 
salinity and C0 2 of the water decrease as pH and turbidity increase; salinity changes 
are the result of dilution and circulation; C0 2 changes result from vegetation, light, and 
temperature; pH is affected by C0 2 production and circulation; and turbidity is due to 
depth, agitation, and availability of loose material. It was suggested that there is a 
topographical low area parallel to the present keys and extending north seemingly an 
extension with present-day drainage. 

1980 - 1985 

Harriss, R. C., D. I. Sebacher, K. B. Bartlett, D. S. Bartlett, and P. M. Crill (1988) Sources 

of atmospheric methane in the south Florida environment. Global Biogeochem. Cycles . 

2 (3): 2 31 -43. 

Direct measurement of methane (CH 4 ) flux from wetland ecosystems of South Florida 
demonstrates that freshwater wet prairies and inundated sawgrass marsh are the 
dominant sources of atmospheric CH 4 in the region. Fluctuations in soil moisture are an 
important environmental factor controlling both seasonal and interannual fluctuations in 
CH 4 emissions from undistrubed wetlands. Land use estimates from 1900 to 1973 were 
used to calculate regional CH 4 flux. Human settlement in South Florida has modified 
wetland sources of CH 4 , reducing the natural prairies and marsh sources by 37%. 
During the same period, impoundments and disturbed wetlands were created which 
produce CH 4 at rates approximately 50% higher than the natural wetlands they 
replaced. Preliminary estimates of urban and ruminant sources of CH 4 based on 
extrapolation from literature data indicate these sources may now contribute 
approximately 23% of the total regional source. We estimate that the integrated 
effects of urban and agricultural development in South Florida between 1900 and 1973 
resulted in a 26% enhancement in CH 4 flux to the troposphere. This citation reports the 
results of CH 4 flux studies conducted from 1980 to 1985. 


1981 0 

Aisner, J. A., and S. B. Upchurch (1981) Genesis of a skeletal mound, Arsenic Bank, Florida 

Bay. Geol. Soc. Amer. Abs. . 13(7):394. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Arsenic Bank is 
a series of Holocene carbonate mounds located in southwestern Florida Bay. Surficial 
sediment samples and fourteen cores were taken from a mound in the middle of the 
Arsenic Bank chain to determine bank history, modes of sedimentation and biotic 
composition. The depositional history of the mound is, in ascending order, deposition of: 
(1) a basal, polyhaline facies; (2) an upper, normal marine facies; and (3) a storm 
facies within the normal marine facies. These facies document the Flandrian 
transgression in southwestern Florida Bay. The basal, polyhaline facies consists of 
muddy sand which accumulated in bedrock depressions about 3,200 yrs ago. This 
sediment was colonized by Thalassia and contains a brackish-water tolerant fauna. The 
normal marine facies is composed of beds of coral, algal and molluscan sediment with 
subordinant plants, foraminifera and sponges. Growths of Thalassia, Porites and 
sponges allowed for baffling of waves and currents and formed a loose, interlocking 
framework in which sediments were trapped. They also provided a substrate for a 


260 




diverse fauna of sediment contributors. Episodic storms account for significant 
concentrations of very coarse-grained sediment within the normal marine facies. These 
concentrations resemble modern "blowout' deposits caused by major storms. Sediment 
textures suggests that modes of sedimentation on the mound have not changed 
significantly throughout most of its depositional history. These modes of sedimentation 
include autochthonous accumulations of skeletal debris and bedrock fragments. Vertical 
accretion of the mound is the result of growth of framework-organisms and sediment 
entrapment in a high wave- and current-energy environment. Episodic storms yield lag 
concentrations of corals and other coarse skeletal debris. 


1981 0 

Kick, R. M. (1981) Carbonate sediments from Peterson Key Bank, Florida Bay. M. S. 
Thesis, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] A study of 
carbonate sediments at Petersen Key Bank demonstrated that all sediments are of 
biological origin, produced predominantly by mollusks, Halimeda, and foraminifera. 
Difference in sediment texture was attributed to the mode of sedimentary breakdown 
by organisms. These organisms and the type of sediment they produce are summarized. 
The distribution of sediment type was used to determine the recent history of two 
channels in the bank. 


1981 0 

Davis, G. E. (1981) On the role of underwater parks and sanctuaries in the management of 

coastal resources in the southeastern United States. Environ. Conser. . 8(1):67-70. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Aquatic resources in parks and 
reserves are not as adequately protected as comparable terrestrial resources. Thus 
the values of protected aquatic ecosystems as standards for comparison, reservoirs of 
genetic material, and "emotional" reserves, are apt to be greatly diminished. Even 
seemingly static ecosystems such as coral reefs are dynamic, changing dramatically in 
response to natural short-term environmental variations. Such ecosystems require 
protected natural areas as dynamic standards that will allow distinctions to be drawn 
between effects of exploitation or pollution and normal variation. Furthermore, 
fisheries harvests may reduce the size at which exploited species mature, and reduce 
the amount and variability of genetic material produced by exploited populations. The 
seven underwater parks or sanctuaries established since 1935 in Florida and the US 
Virgin Islands exhibit wide variations in the degree of protection accorded to aquatic 
resources, a range being apparent from nearly complete protection in the first parks to 
be established to virtually no protection at all in the recently-established parks. The 
consequences of permitting consumptive uses of aquatic resources in parks and 
reserves need to be objectively evaluated. Unless these consumptive uses are severely 
curtailed or eliminated, the primary values of the parks and reserves may never be 
realized. 


1981 0 

Morrison, D. (1981) Macroalgal seasonality in Batop/iora-dominated communities in the 
Florida Keys. M. S. Thesis. Rosentiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University 
of Miami, Miami, FL. 118 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This study investigates 
macroalgal seasonality in Bafophora-dominated communities in Florida Bay at Hammer 
Point, Key Largo. The objectives of this research were: (1) to determine if the 
macrophyte community varies seasonally in respect to species richness, diversity, and 
abundances of species; (2) the description of the annual pattern of productivity, 
abundance, and reproduction of Batophora oerstedr, and (3) to determine if observed 


261 



biological patterns are correlated with seasonal changes in environmental parameters. 
All measured abiotic patterns fluctuated over the course of a year; however, only a 
few exhibited seasonal patterns. Water temperature had an obvious seasonal pattern of 
considerable amplitude. A maximum temperature of 36°C was recorded in summer and 
a minimum of 12°C in winter. Nitrite and nitrate had no apparent seasonal pattern. 
However, orthophosphate levels were greatest in spring and summer and ammonia 
concentrations were generally greatest in the summer and fall. These patterns could be 
due to terrestrial runoff from heavy summer rains and fall turnover in the canal. Mid¬ 
day irradiance at the study site did not exhibit much seasonality. Macrophyte 
associations in three habitats - bay flat, canal ledge, and canal slope - were 
investigated. Dominant species on the bay flat were Batophora oerstedi and 
Acetabularia crenulata. In the canal, the dominants were Batophora and Laurencia spp. 
{L. poitei and L.obtusa). In all habitats, seasonality occurred at the community and 
population levels. The macroalgal associations can be subdivided into winter and 
summer communities, with significant seasonal differences in at least two of the 
following community characteristics: species richness, species diversity, total 
vegetational abundance, and the abundances of species. The seasonal pattern differed 
with habitat; species diversity increased on the bay flat, decreased on the canal slope, 
and remained the same on the canal ledge from summer to winter. The different 
patterns are in part due to differences in species composition and relative abundance 
among habitats. Community seasonality was due primarily to fluctuations in the 
abundances of species present in both periods rather than changes in species 
composition. Ten species varied seasonally in population abundance. These include the 
dominants of each habitat except the canal slope. Batophora abundance was highest in 
the summer and fall. Schizothrix sp. also was more abundant in summer. The other 
species, Acetabularia, Laurencia spp, Chondria tenissuma, Heterosiphonia sp., 
Polysiphonia sp., Jania rubens, and Griffithsia tenius were more abundant in winter. 
These results support the hypothesis of the presence of winter- and summer- 
optimum plants in the Florida Keys. Batophora was reproductive throughout the year; 
however, the reproductive activity varied seasonally. Reproduction was greatest in 
fall (mid-October to mid-December). The fall reproductive pulse may be triggered 
mainly by the abrupt drop in water temperature with the passage of the first fall cold 
front, or occasionally a late summer hurricane. Net photosynthesis and respiration 
varied seasonally but with different patterns. Net photosynthesis was highest in 
summer and lowest in winter. It was positively correlated with temperature, but not 
correlated with any other parameter. Respiration was greatest in fall when 
reproductive activity was maximal. Respiration was not correlated with any 
environmental parameter. Whereas seasonality in net photosynthesis is influenced by an 
environmental factor, temperature, seasonal variation in respiration appears to be the 
result of a biological phenomena, reproductive activity, and not directly influenced by 
abiotic factors within the ranges observed here. The P/R ratio was always greater 
than one, thus Batophora metabolism was not energy limited. Batophora's apparent 
capacity for year-round growth and reproduction could explain its ability to rapidly 
colonize and dominate newly exposed substrate. I believe temperature is the major 
abiotic causal factor in the seasonality observed in this study. Seasonal patterns in 
Batophora photosynthesis, reproduction, and abundance, and the abundances of other 
species closely follow that of temperature. Photoperiod, irradiance, and wave action, 
which could explain why Batophora abundance on the canal slope did not vary 
seasonally, probably play a secondary role to temperature. 


1981 

Powell, G. V. N. (1983) Food availability and reproduction by great white herons, Ardea 
herodias : a food addition study. Colonial Waterbirds . 6:139-47. 


262 



The impact of food on reproduction in great white herons was measured by comparing 
timing of nesting, clutch size, and fledging success of naturally foraging herons with 
herons that received supplemental food during the 1981 breeding season. The timing of 
nest initiation was not significantly different between food-supplemented and 
unsupplemented herons. Supplemented herons laid larger clutches and raised more 
young than did unsupplemented birds. Clutch sizes of supplemented herons were not 
significantly different from clutches laid by herons in Florida Bay in the 1923 when the 
habitat was relatively pristine. These results provide evidence that food availability 
can influence clutch size and fledging success in great white herons However, the 
similarity in size of clutches produced by supplemented herons and 1923 herons also 
suggests that unsupplemented herons had depressed clutches. The response to food 
supplementation is therefore interpreted as evidence that herons decrease clutch size 
when food is scarce. It was not possible to determine from this study whether food 
abundance could be increased sufficiently to trigger herons to increase clutch size 
above levels considered typical for the species. 


1981 0 

Raymond, R., and T. D. Davies (1981) Mangrove root intrusion; a means for enriching 

sulfur in underlying peats. Scanning Electron Microscopy . 1981(1):651 -56 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Electron probe 
microanalysis has shown that Lower Kittanning coal samples (a seam in Western 
Pennsylvania) with freshwater overburden contain the least organic S, while those 
with marine overburden contain the most organic S. The organic S contents of 
freshwater coals are greater than those of marine coals conformably overlying them. 
Chemical analyses performed on Florida Bay peats deposited in freshwater 
environments and later affected by marine waters permeate a previously deposited low 
S peat, the organic S content will be increased. A mechanism must be present that 
increases permeability of the underlying peats and provides avenues along which 
marine waters travel downward. From scanning electron microscopy and petrographic 
data root intrusion by R. mangle L. (red mangrove) trees that grow in a marine 
environment appear to be a mechanism for emplacement of fin-grained pyrite in 
underlying freshwater peats. Root intrusion may provide a means for enriching organic 
S in freshwater peats overlain by marine conditions. 


1981 0 

Tyson, R. (1981) Sediments of a Florida Bay basin. M. S. Thesis. University of South 
Florida, Tampa, FL. 

In a southeastern Florida Bay basin, 44 surface sediment samples exhibited variations 
in texture, mineralogy, and molluscan assemblages. Sediment grain size analysis 
separated the samples into three major groups. Aragonite averaged approximately 51% 
in the silt and clay sized fractions. Bivalves were shown to prefer small grain sized 
sediments. A direct correlation between bivalve and Thalassia distribution was 
associated with the trapping of fine grained sediments by seagrass beds. Epifaunal 
gastropods exhibited uniform distribution. Correlations among sand, depth, rock 
fragments, foraminifera, Cerithium, Halimeda, and calcite content are identified for 
sand environments; correlations among other variables are also cited for silt 
environments. 


1981 0 

Walker, N. D. (1981) January water temperatures kill Florida fauna. Coast. Oceanoqr. 
Climatol. News . 3(3):30. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Seven cold fronts 
reached southern Florida during January 1981, depressing air and water temperatures 


263 





below normal for most of the month. Intense frontal systems moved into the area Jan 
10 and 16, causing air temperature minima over Florida Bay of 2.2 and 5.3°C, 
respectively, and wind speeds in excess of 15 m sec' 1 at Key West. Florida Bay water 
reached temperatures of 9.0°C. The effects of the January 16 frontal passage on 
shallow bank and Bay environments is shown on a NOAA-6 satellite image. 


1981 

Walker, N. D., H. H. Roberts, L. J. Rouse, and O. K. Huh (1982) Thermal history of reef- 

associated environments during a record cold-air outbreak event. Coral Reefs . 1:83-7. 

Several polar continental air masses intruding into the south Florida/northern Bahama 
Bank region during January 1981 caused record low air temperatures and rapid chilling 
of extensive shallow-water carbonate systems. Numerous ‘coral kills' along the 
Florida reef tract and massive fish mortalities in Florida Bay were attributable to 
unusually cold waters generated at this time. Thermal evolution of Florida Bay/Florida 
reef tract and northern Bahama Bank waters from 8 to 21 January was assessed from 
thermal infrared data acquired by the NOAA-6 environmental satellite, in situ water 
temperatures, local meteorological data, and a computerized heat flux model. Field 
observations and laboratory experiments identify 16°C as a thermal stress threshold 
for most reef corals. Temperature corrected digital satellite data indicated that water 
temperatures below 16°C were generated in Florida Bay and on Little and Great Bahama 
Banks during a 10-day period in January. Lowest temperatures on the Florida reef 
tract resulted from offshelf transport of Florida Bay water through major tidal 
channels. Offshelf movement of bay water is driven primarily by strong northerly 
winds, density gradients, and tidal pumping. Absence of reef development opposite 
major tidal passes along the Florida reef tract and aperiodic coral kills along bank 
margins can be attributed to this process, which has probably had a limiting influence 
on Holocene reef development in these areas. 


1981 0 

Woodroffe, C. D. (1981) Mangrove swamp stratigraphy and Holocene transgression, Grand 

Cayman Island, West Indies. Mar. Geol. . 41 (3/4):271-94. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The island of Grand Cayman, in 
the western Caribbean, has an extensive mangrove swamp vegetation. Numerous cores 
have been taken in and adjacent to these swamplands, and these reveal that the swamps 
are generally underlain by a transgressive sequence of sediments. The basal unit of this 
sequence consists of a laminated or non-laminated crust, formed in a subaerial 
environment. Locally, these crusts are overlain by plastic mud, deposited in 
seasonally-flooded environments. Mangrove peat forms the upper unit of the 
transgression within most of the swamplands, overlying the other units where these 
are found, and reaching thicknesses of more than 4 m. The final stage of marine 
incursion is recorded to the east of North Sound, where, in water depths of 10 - 200 
cm, shelly mud occurs overlying mangrove peat. In contrast to this, to the west of 
North Sound, there is a regressive sequence in which shelly marl underlies a localized 
sea grass peat and mangrove peat. This regressive sequence records local progradation 
of mangroves into marine environments. The transgressive sedimentary sequence on 
Grand Cayman is similar to transgressive sedimentary sequences described from the 
Florida Everglades-mangrove complex, Florida Bay and the Belize Shelf. On Grand 
Cayman, however, the stratigraphy is less complex because there are not extensive 
freshwater peat-forming environments, or intertidal and supratidal carbonate 
environments. Samples of mangrove peat were collected from the peat/bedrock 
interface along a surveyed profile across Barkers Peninsula on Grand Cayman. 
Radiometric dating of these implies that sea level was approximately 185 cm below the 
present level at least 2100 yrs BP. Comparison of these dates with dates on mangrove 


264 




peat from elsewhere suggests that submergence on Grand Cayman has taken place at a 
similar rate to that in Florida. 

1981 - 1983 

Dunson, W. A., and M. Seidel (1986) Salinity tolerance of estuarine and insular Emydid 

turtles ( Pseudemys nelsoni and Trachemys decussata). J. HerptoL 20(2):237-45. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Pseudemys nelsoni and 
Trachemys decussata inhabit brackish water in mainland areas of extreme southern 
Florida and on Grand Cayman Island. They appear to be intermediate in their salinity 
tolerance between truly freshwater forms and the highly specialized estuarine terrapin 
(Malaclemys ). Unfed P. nelsoni (730 - 1240 g) had especially low rates of mass loss 
(primarily net water loss) in 100% seawater (about 0.4% initial mass day' 1 ). Smaller 
T. decussata (200 - 240 g) had higher values (about 0.8%/day), yet these rates were 
still lower than four values obtained on typical freshwater species (1.8 - 7.6%/day) 
held in 100% seawater. Mean whole body water effluxes in 100% seawater of adult P. 
nelsoni and T. decussata larger than 60 g were low (0.24 - 0.47 mL 100 g' 1 h* 1 ). 
Hatchling T. decussata had much higher rates of water efflux (1.0 mL 100 g' 1 h' 1 ). 
Sodium effluxes in 100% seawater were low (less than 100 nmol 100 g* 1 h' 1 ) in all 
size classes. There was no stimulation in sodium efflux after salt loading in P. nelsoni, 
nor in T. decussata after dehydration in saline solutions. This implies the lack of salt 
glands in these species. Sodium influx in 100% seawater was very low in adult P. 
nelsoni and in T. decussata larger than 200 g. There was a progressive increase in 
sodium influx with declining size in T. decussata, so that hatchlings underwent a 
considerable net uptake of sodium in seawater. Hatchling T. decussata fed fish ad 
libitum were unable to maintain mass or grow when the salinity exceeded 41% 
seawater. Juveniles of about 80 g grew at salinities up to 59% seawater, representing 
a significantly increase in tolerance above that of the hatchlings. Additionally, 80 g 
turtles grew significantly faster in 25% seawater than in freshwater. Large individuals 
(>200 g) of both species tolerated immersion in 100% seawater for prolonged periods 
(at least 10-24 days). Their natural habitats vary seasonally in salinity, but remain 
on average quite dilute due to rainfall. 

1981 - 1986 

Robblee, M. B., and J. T. Tilmant (1989) Distribution, abundance and recruitment of the 

pink shrimp ( Penaeus duorarum) within Florida Bay. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical 

Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1):522. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY] The Tortugas shrimping grounds were first exploited commercially 
in 1950 prompting intensive study of the early life history of the pink shrimp in the 
shallow near shore waters of South Florida, the primary nursery ground for the 
species. Within the Bay, the pink shrimp is an important source of food for gamefish 
species and wading birds. This paper reports the use of sled net and throw traps to 
study the seasonal and spatial distribution of the pink shrimp in Florida Bay from 1981 
to 1986. Seasonal observations and recruitment studies were concentrated in Johnson 
Key Basin, a high density shrimp area in western Florida Bay. Largest abundance was 
found between fall and winter with peak abundance between September and December. 
The pink shrimp was present throughout the year in Johnson Key Basin and was most 
abundant during fall and winter with peak abundance between September and December. 
During this study, average shrimp size varied seasonally, but was higher in 1986 when 
compared to 1985. During the fall and winter, pink shrimp were most abundant in near¬ 
key habitats in Johnson Key Basin when compared to bank and basin. While very small 
shrimp <9 mm CL were most abundant in near-key habitats, the distribution of shrimp 
size during the winter was similar among habitats. Based on sampling in January 1986, 
pink shrimp generally were most abundant in the west when compared with central and 


265 




eastern Florida Bay. Over the whole bay, where shrimp are present, they appear to be 
most abundant in shallow water, either near-key or bank habitat. 


1982 

Bert, T. M. (1985) Geographic variation, population biology, and hybridization in Menippe 

mercenaria and evolution in the genus Menippe in the southwestern North Atlantic Ocean. 

Ph.D. Dissertation. Yale University, New Haven, CT. 305 pp. 

Electrophoretically detectable variation in 40 proteins, color morphology, and field 
studies involving trapping and SCUBA diving were used to determine the evolutionary 
relationships of crabs of the genus Menippe (Xanthidae) in the south eastern United 
States. Correlation of the patterns of geographic variation in genotype and phenotype 
with the geological record and estimated times of divergence indicated that the 
observed patterns are the product of the influence of Late Cenozoic changes in climate 
and geology. Both allele frequencies (= genotype) and color morphology (= phenotype) 
showed that one of the species, M. mercenaria, is actually a taxonomic supergroup, 
composed of two taxa (designated semispecies). One (the western Gulf form) is 
distributed from northwest Florida westward through Texas. The second ranges, in its 
pure form, through the Florida peninsula from northwest to east central Florida, and in 
North Carolina. The taxa hybridize in two discrete regions - in the Gulf of Mexico 
(northwest Florida) and in the Atlantic Ocean (east central Florida to South Carolina). 
The Atlantic hybrid zone was formed prior to the closure of the seaway across north 
Florida connecting the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic, and the northwest Florida zone 
at some time subsequent to that closure. The northwest Florida hybrid zone is narrow, 
exhibits a strong concurrent clinal shift in both allele frequencies ( = genotype) and 
color pattern ( = phenotype). The zone has definable deficits of hybrids in general, and 
of particular hybrid phenotype-genotype combinations. The structure and dynamics of 
the zone can be attributed to (1) its location in an ecological transition zone, and at the 
parapatric junction of the ranges of the two parent taxa, (2) partial assortative mating 
due to different habitat preferences of the two taxa, and (3) post-mating selection 
against particular genotype-phenotype forms. The northwest Florida hybrid zone is 
characteristic of hybrid zones that persist through evolutionary long periods of time 
with relatively little change. The Atlantic hybrid zone is broad and has a unique 
geographical pattern of allele frequencies and color morphology. The greatest variation 
in color pattern is seen where the zone is thought to have originated (Georgia), and no 
animals within the zone are phenotypically identical to either parental form. Allele 
frequencies never completely shift from one parental type to the other but remain close 
to those of the form inhabiting peninsular Florida. The strongest shifts in allele 
frequencies occur in east central Florida and South Carolina, to the south and north or 
the origin of the zone. The structure and dynamics of the Atlantic hybrid zone can be 
attributed to: (1) its ancient age; (2) the absence of a pronounced ecotone throughout 
the zone; (3) greater habitat overlap than is seen between the two taxa in the 
northwest Florida hybrid zone; (4) location of the hybrid zone in relation to the range of 
the two parental taxa; and (5) numerical and genetic swamping of the western Gulf 
taxon by the peninsular Florida taxon. Hybridization in Menippe illustrates that multiple 
instances of hybridization between the same two species can result in very different 
morphological configurations of the zones themselves, and possibly even in different 
resolutions of the hybridization event, depending upon the environmental context in 
which hybridization occurs and stage of divergence of the two hybridizing taxa. 
Sampling in Florida Bay took place in 1982 north of Marathon. 


1982 0 

Beccasio, A. D., N. Fotheringham, A. E. Redfield, and et al. (1982) Gulf coast ecological 
inventory: user’s guide and information base. Biological Services Program, US Fish and 
Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. 191 pp. 


266 


[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This report 
provides an inventory of important ecological resources along the Gulf coast, including 
the Everglades National Park. It is intended to provide government and industry 
decision-makers with ecological information to assist them in the determination of 
impacts from the coastal sitings of oil- and energy-related facilities. Major goals of the 
inventory include review and analysis of coastal fish and wildlife data and habitats, 
development of data formats compatible with 1:250,000 mapping scale, and the 
preparation of a report narrative keyed to resource inventory graphics. Ecological 
resources are summarized by geographic zone and descriptions and locations of species 
with special status and species of high commercial, recreational and aesthetic value are 
included. 


1982 0 

DeFelice, D. R. (1982) Applicability of the r-selection concept to modern diatom 

communities. Geol. Soc. Amer. Abs. . 14(7):473. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Analysis of 
diatomaceous sediments from two widely separated and different environments 
indicates that the concept of r selection may be applied to diatom communities. Diatom 
populations sampled from the shallow benthic environment of Florida Bay (biacoenose) 
and from the deep sea planktic environment of the southeast Atlantic (thanatocoenose) 
share similarities in diversity and ecologic succession that conform strongly to the 
hypothetical r and K selectors defined by MacArthur and Wilson. Diversity in both areas 
is strongly regulated by the stability and predictability of the environment. Low 
diversity assemblages in Florida Bay and the southeast Atlantic are almost 
monospecific and involve periodic recolonization. Cocconeis placentula occurs in 
insignificant numbers on the sediment substrate in Florida Bay but is ubiquitous on the 
grass blades of Thalassia testudinum whose short residence time on the plant makes the 
substrate ephemeral, unstable and unpredictable. Although Nitzschia kerguelensis forms 
a major portion of the diatom assemblage in the diatom ooze belt between the Polar 
Front and northern sea ice boundary, it is overwhelmingly dominant in the portion of 
the Weddell Basin affected by fluctuating ice conditions. It acts as an epontic species 
within the sea ice, recolonizing the open ocean in the summer following sea ice 
recession. Both species explode into an ecologic vacuum following a strategy defined 
for r selectors of producing as many progeny as possible into an environment with 
minimal competition. Production is regulated solely by maximum intrinsic rate of 
natural increase (r max). 


1982 0 

Caughey, M. E. (1982) A study of the dissolved organic matter in the pore waters of 
carbonate-rich sediment cores from Florida Bay. M. S. Thesis. University of Texas at 
Dallas, Richardson, TX. 69 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Interstitial fluids extracted from 
segments of cores collected from mudbanks and islands in Florida Bay were analyzed to 
determine the types and amounts of dissolved free and combined amino acids present. 
Both protein and nonprotein amino acids were found in concentrations as high as 263 |iM 
for free, and up to 353 ^M for the total following acid hydrolysis. The five most 
abundant amino acids, both in the free and combined forms, were glutamic acid, alanine, 
aspartic acid, serine and glycine. The total concentration of glutamic acid usually 
exceeds that of aspartic acid, in contrast with many other types of sedimentary 
organic matter. The ratio of total aspartic acid to total serine in the pore waters of the 
upper core segments tended to be less than one at stations located in central areas of 
the Bay, but greater than one at stations nearer the Keys and the mainland. The total 
hydrolysate amino acid concentration in the uppermost segment pore waters generally 


267 



increased away from the mainland toward the Keys and the Gulf. Trends in the 
free/combined ratios of averaged amino acid concentrations at selected depths indicate 
that free amino acids may be incorporated into soluble polymers in the interval between 
12 and 60 cm. Overall, total amino acid and total carbohydrate concentrations 
decreased progressively with increasing depth in the sediment column. Beta- 
aminoglutaric acid was tentatively identified in 53 out of 62 core segments. Its 
concentration decreased with depth in all cores but one. The amino acid composition of 
organic matter dissolved in pore water and adsorbed to mineral surfaces in carbonate 
sediments differs significantly from the amino acid composition of organic matter in 
non-carbonate sediments. 


1982 0 

Manker, J. P., A. R. Hill, and C. S. Johnston (1982) Toxic metal concentrations and 
distribution in Tavernier and Tarpon Basin - Florida Bay. 59th Ann. Mtg. of the Georgia 
Acad. Science, Columbus, GA, April 23 - 24, 1982. Ga. J. Sci. . 40(1-2):21. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Sediment* 
toxic metal distribution studies have been completed in two backwater basins of Florida 
Bay. Although the natural environmental setting for each basin was similar, the 
concentrations of Pb and Zn were found to be greater in the basin adjacent to Tavernier 
Key as compared to Tarpon Basin adjacent to Key Largo. Chromium and Co 
concentrations were not appreciably different in the two basins. Lead concentrations 
ranged from 12 to 150 pig/g and from 10 to 24 ng/g in Tavernier and Tarpon Basin 
respectively. Zinc was found to have a maximum concentration of 38 ^g/g in Tavernier 
Basin and 24 jig/g in Tarpon Basin. The major source of Pb contamination in Tavernier 
Basin is from marine and automotive internal combustion engine emissions. A storm 
sewage drainage system, which drains the major highway in that part of the Florida 
Keys, empties into the basins via a single pipe. Tavernier Basin is also a high use 
marina area. In conjunction with the toxic metal investigation a survey of bottom flora 
and fauna populations was carried out in both basins. No benthic fauna exists in the 
Tavernier basin, and little difference was found in number and variety of plant species 
between basins. 


1982 0 

Odum, W. E., C. C. Mclvor, and T. J. Smith (1982) The ecology of the mangroves of South 
Florida: A community profile. FWS/OBS-81/24. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Land 
Management, New Orleans, LA. 144 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This citation is a description of 
the ecology of mangrove communities of South Florida. The subjects covered include 
mangroves, microorganisms, plants other than mangroves, invertebrates, fishes, 
amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, economic value of ecosystem, and management. 
No abstract or summary is available. 


1982 0 

Parks, J. M., P. J. Lagas, M. A. Cable, R. D. Becker, S. I. Michelson, C. Lensch, and E. B. 
Evenson (1982) Florida Bay carbonate mud banks: possible additional factor in mode of 
deposition exemplified by Ramshorn Spit. Geol. Soc. Am., Abstr., 14(7):58. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Holocene 
carbonate mudbanks in Florida Bay have been attributed to the turtle grass, Thalassia 
testudinum, which traps fine sediment on contact with slime coating on its leaves, acts 
as a baffle to promote the deposition of suspended sediment by slowing current flow, 
and prevents sediment erosion with its rhizomes. However, Ramshorn Spit is 


Sediment samples were collected and analyzed in this study. This is not mentioned in the published abstract. Personal 
communication, J. P. Manker, Georgia Southwestern College, Americus, GA. 


268 




accumulating without benefit of a grass cover. Older portions of the spit that have built 
up to sea level acquire a grass cover which stabilizes the mudbank. Results indicate 
that sediment comes to rest on the growing mudspit as organically-bound agglomerates. 
Undispersed samples are unimodal at 4.50, have a lower density than solid particles of 
that size, and therefore settle more slowly. Most previous size analysis of Florida Bay 
sediments were made on mechanically and/or chemically disaggregated samples; this 
may have obscured the observation that Ramshorn Spit sediment is deposited as 
aggregates of fine particles bound with organic matter.-Adapted from authors' 
abstract. 


1982 0 

Rich, J., D. Kuehn, and T. D. Davies (1982) The paleoecological significance of ovoidites. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.) Ovoidites is an ovoid zygospore 
or aplanospore of the Zygnemataceae which is found in sediments of the Cretaceous to 
Holocene age. Spores typically exhibit a prominent line of dehiscence that allows them 
to split in half lengthwise. The variety of sizes, shapes, and sculpturing suggests that 
several natural species may be included within Ovoidites. Studies of sediment cores 
from marine, brackish, and freshwater sequences beneath islands in Florida Bay and at 
the mouth of the Harney River in Everglades National Park demonstrate the close 
association which the spores have with freshwater peats and related pollen 
assemblages. Palynological study of freshwater peats from the Okefenokee Swamp in 
Georgia shows additionally that Ovoidites occurs preferentially with open-water marsh 
peat and pollen assemblages. The spores typically are not found in tree- or shrub- 
dominated areas, and, therefore, are not associated with tree and shrub peats. The 
apparently narrow range of habitat preferences which the algae display suggests that 
Ovoidites may be a valuable indicator of ancient freshwater coal deposits. 


1982 0 

Schomer, N. S., and R. D. Drew (1982) An ecological characterization of the Lower 

Everglades, Florida Bay and the Florida Keys. US Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of 

Biological Services, Washington, DC. FWS/OBS-82/58.1. 246 pp. 

A conceptual model of the study area identified four major ecological zones: (1) 
terrestrial and freshwater wetlands, (2) estuarine and saltwater wetlands, (3) Florida 
Bay and mangrove islands, and (4) the Florida Keys. These are geographically 
delineated from one another by a combination of elevation gradient and positioning 
relative to one another and to major outside influences such as upstream watersheds, 
the continental shelf and major ocean current systems. These zones are delineated by 
differences in basic physical-chemical background factors such as substrate, climate, 
hydrology and water chemistry which in turn promote characteristic ecological 
communities. Many of these communities are similar between zones but localized 
differences do exist, as do significant shifts in relative abundance of community types. 
The terrestrial and freshwater wetlands support pinelands, sawgrass marshes, wet 
prairies, sloughs and occasional tree islands on freshwater peat, marl, and limestone 
soils. The estuarine and saltwater wetlands support mangrove forests, salt marshes 
and oscillating salinity systems on mangrove peat, marine marl, sand or "liver mud" 
substrates. Florida Bay exhibits oscillating meso - to hypersaline waters over 
grassbeds on marine lime mud sediments. These mud banks form an anastomosing 
pattern surrounding deeper "lake" areas having only a thin veneer of sediment. The 
exposed tips of the mud banks frequently support mangrove and salt prairie vegetation. 
The Florida Keys support almost all of the above communities to some small degree but 
are more prominently characterized by extensive offshore coral reefs. The upper Keys 
are themselves a relict reef exposed by global lowering of sea level. The lower keys 


269 


are composed of rock hardened Miami oolite, a limestone formed via chemical 
precipitation rather than biological deposition. The productivity of these communities 
with regard to fish and wildlife reflects: (1) the diversity and type of habitats 
available to species that are potentially capable of exploiting them, (2) the degree of 
alteration of these habitats by man and natural forces, and (3) historical, biogeographic 
and random factors that restrict organisms to specific environments or prohibit them 
from exploiting a potential habitat. 


1982 

Sorensen, C. E. (1985) Quantitative analysis of the carbonate sediments in Shell Key Basin, 

Florida Bay. The Compass . 62(2):97-105. 

Sediment and water samples were collected from a small basin in Florida Bay to 
elucidate the process of carbonate sediment genesis. At each sample station various 
environmental parameters were measured: depth, temperature, salinity, dissolved 
carbon dioxide, dissolved oxygen, and pH. Grain-size analysis was conducted on the 
sediment samples. The resultant data set was subjected to various statistical analyses, 
principal-component analysis, and a regression analysis. The factor and regression 
analysis indicated that the strongest predictive variables for the dominant grain-size 
class are salinity, concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide, and concentration of 
dissolved oxygen. The stronger predictive relationship exhibited between dissolved 
oxygen and the dominant grain-size class suggests that algae play a larger role in 
sediment production than mollusks in Shell Key Basin. The strong inverse relationship 
displayed between depth and pH suggests that the shallow marine mudbanks maintain 
their relief by higher organic activity than the deeper parts of the Basin. Temperature 
may play a larger role than previously hypothesized in the distribution of grain sizes in 
Shell Key Basin. 


1982 

Sorensen, C. E. (1985) A study of active processes affecting grain-size and chemical 
distribution in three selected basins of Florida Bay, Florida. M. S. Thesis. Wichita State 
University, Wichita, KS. 146 pp. 

Sediment and water samples were collected and analyzed in three basins of Florida Bay 
to determine whether biological or physical processes control grain size. The sediments 
were analyzed for weight percent of Ca, Mg, Ti, Si, Al, Sr, Fe, and K using x-ray 
fluorescence. Water samples were analyzed in situ by a portable chemical analysis kit 
for pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, dissolved carbon dioxide, salinity, and 
turbidity. Populations of benthonic flora and fauna were estimated at the 45 sampling 
stations. X-ray diffractometry determined mineralogical content present for each 
sediment sample. Statistical parameters were calculated to elucidate any relationships. 
Parameters indicated that physical processes controlled grain-size distributions in 
Shell Key and Crab Key Basins, but biological processes controlled grain-size 
distributions in the northernmost basin: Madeira Bay. Interpretation of the Sr analyses 
inferred that most of the sediment in the basins was derived from mollusks, rather 
than algae as previously believed. Chemical conditions above the sediment-water 
interface were not favorable for inorganic, physicochemical precipitation of calcium 
carbonate at the time the measurements were taken. The expected significant negative 
correlation between Thalassia density and the percentage of coarse grains was present 
in only one basin. Sampling took place in 1982. 

1982 0 

Ullman, W. J., and R. C. Aller (1982) Diffusion coefficients in nearshore marine sediments. 
Limnol. Oceanoar. . 27(3):552-6. 


270 




[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The formation resistivity factor, 
F, necessary to calculate bulk sediment diffusion coefficients of interstitial solutes 
from free solution diffusion coefficients, can be estimated from f, the sediment 
porosity. Empirical relationships between F and e 2 indicate that F - C‘ 2 for unlithified 
marine sands or muds when e 0.7 and F - c 2 - 5 to C‘ 3 for high porosity muds when e ^ 
0.7. Cores were collected from Captain Key Bank, Florida Bay, as well as from other 
locations. 


1982 0 

Walker, N. D., H. H. Roberts, L. J. Rouse, and O. K. Huh (1982) Evolution of 'thermal 

stress* in high altitude reef systems. EOS Trans.. 63(3):83. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Intrusions of 
polar continental air into the south Florida/northern Bahama Banks region cause rapid 
and extensive chilling of shallow reef, associated bay and bank waters. 'Coral kills' 
observed during the 1969 - 1970, 1976 - 1977, and 1980 - 1981 winters were 
attributed to cold-water induced stress. Thermal evolution of Florida Bay and northern 
Bahama Banks waters was assessed for critical times during these winters with 
temperature-corrected thermal infrared data acquired by the NOAA-5 and NOAA-6 
environmental satellites, in-situ water temperatures, and a computerized heat-flux 
model. Laboratory and field experiments identify 16°C as a thermal stress threshold 
for most reef corals. Sub-16°C waters were generated in shallow bay and bank areas 
during January of each winter. Offshore movement of super chilled waters interrupted 
warmer conditions along bank margins, subjecting corals to stressful waters. Strong 
northerly winds are the primary initiator of this offbank flux; however, density 
gradients and tidal pumping may increase the transport rate. Absence of reef 
development opposite major tidal passes connecting Florida Bay and the reef tract, as 
well as coral moralities observed, is attributable to this process, which has probably 
limited Holocene reef growth in these areas. 


1982 0 

Zieman, J. C. (1982) The ecology of the seagrasses of south Florida: a community profile. 

FWS/OBS-82/25. US Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. 158 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This report 
provides a detailed description of the community structure and ecosystem process of 
the seagrass ecosystems of south Florida including Florida Bay, one of the two major 
areas of seagrass distribution in Florida. This description is based upon a compilation of 
information from numerous published and unpublished sources. The material covered 
includes distribution, systematics, physiology, and growth of the plants, as well as 
succession and community development. The role of seagrass ecosystems in providing 
both food and shelter for juveniles as well as foraging grounds for larger organisms is 
treated in detail. Emphasis is given to the functional role of seagrass communities in the 
overall coastal marine system. The final section considers the impacts of human 
development on seagrass ecosystems and their value to both man and the natural 
system. Because seagrass systems are fully submerged and less visibly obvious, 
recognition of their value as a natural resource has been slower than that of the 
emergent coastal communities. They must, however be treated as a valuable natural 
resource and preserved from further degradation. 


1982 0 

Zieman, J. C., S. D. Goodwin, and M. L. Robertson (1982) Surface transport of particulate 
matter from Florida Bay. EOS Trans. , 63(3):83. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The surface 
transport of macro-particulate matter provides a mechanism for the exchange of 


271 




organic material between the near shore shallow-water environment and the coastal 
shelf zone. In the fall of 1979, surface drift material was collected from 42 stations 
encompassing 14000 km 2 west of Florida Bay. Two seagrasses, Thalassia testudinum 
and Syringodium filiforme, accounted for 90% of the drift material. Surface drift 
averaged 9.4 g dry weight m' 2 adjacent to the source seagrass beds, and decreased 
with distance from these beds. The total standing stock of drift material in the study 
area was 5000 metric tons dry weight. Samples from smaller studies in 1978 and 
1980 show that the transport of material is highly variable. The exchange of material 
between the inshore grass beds and to coastal shelf region is governed largely by wind 
speed and direction, with the majority of material being transported westward from 
Florida Bay and the lower Keys. A turnover time of approximately 20 days is estimated 
for the floating seagrasses, which could represent an annual input of 7.2 g nr 2 to the 
offshore sediments using the 1979 data. 

1982, 1985 - 1987 

Brasier, M. D., and O. R. Green (1993) Winners and losers: stable isotopes and 

microhabitats of living Archaiadae and Eocene Nummulites (larger forminifera). Mar. 

Micropaleontol. . 20(3-4):267-76. 

This paper discusses isotopes in larger foraminiferal calcite from two contrasting 
settings: modern Florida Bay, dominated by Archaiadae (the "winners'); and the Upper 
Eocene Banon Clay of England, locally dominated by Nummulites ("the losers"). The 
archaiads (plus peneroplids and soritids) were mainly collected from Thalassia leaves. 
They yield signatures that closely reflect strong isotopic gradients in seawater across 
Florida Bay and the outer patch reefs. Isotopic signatures of eurytopic Androsina lucasi 
record extreme conditions to the north of the Bay, which includes 5 13 C evidence for 
much nutrient-regeneration. Such tolerance of relatively eutrophic conditions may 
explain the capacity of Archaiadae for survival in the Caribbean region during the 
Neogene. Isotopes of Nummuliles prestwichianus from the basal Bartonian compare 
more closely with data from living nummulite Heterostegina. 8 18 0 indicates a yearly 
growth cycle under tropical bottom water temperatures with an annual range of 
approximately 2.5°C. Carbon isotopes show a trend towards heavier values with 
growth, here related to decelerating rates of calcification and, perhaps, the additional 
effects of test-thickening on carbon isotope fractionation by endosymbionts. The 
nummulitic data indicate a much more stable carbon and nutrient cycle in the basal 
Barton Clay than seen in the Florida Bay mud mound assemblage. This is consistent with 
their presumed stenotopic and oligotrophic life habit. It could well explain their 
vulnerability to extinction after the mid-Eocene, and the post-Aquitanian decline of 
larger rotaliids and reefs in the Caribbean region. Sampling took placed August to 
September during 1982, and 1985 to 1987 at various locations in Florida Bay. 

1982 - 1984 

Wilson, K. A. (1989) Ecology of mangrove crabs: predation, physical factors and refuges. 

Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 

44( 1 ):263-73. 

The relative importance and interactions of biological and physical factors as influences 
on microhabitat utilization of crabs in mangrove forests in Florida Bay was examined. 
Two experimental approaches were taken: (1) Estimation of the relative risk of 
predation among microhabitats in the mangrove on a tidal, seasonal, and annual basis; 
and (2) Measurement of responses of crabs to exposure in microhabitats in the field. 
Florida Bay mangroves are intertidal soft-sediment habitats in which four species of 
mangrove crabs broadly overlap in habitat utilization and share periodic shifts in 
microhabitat selection. Aratus pisonii is an arboreal crab; Eurytium limosum, Sesarma 
curacaoense, and Uca thayeri live in burrows and holes on the mud surface and 


272 





occasionally climb mangrove prop roots. Field predation tethering experiments found a 
differential risk of predation among microhabitats and strong tidal and seasonal 
differences in predation rates. In field experiments that tested tolerance to exposure in 
various microhabitats species exhibited different responses to temperature and 
relative humidity conditions in each microhabitat. The unique physiognomy and 
characteristics of mangroves provide a habitat that ameliorates environmental 
conditions and provides varied structural refuge from predation for crabs. The 
differential physiological suitability of refuges and risk of predation among 
microhabitats means that crabs must balance the constraints of physiological 
tolerances and the avoidance of predation in a system that has a seasonally variable 
risk of predation and environmental conditions. This study took place from 1982 
through 1984. 

1982 - 1984 

Wilson, K. A. (1985) Physical and biological interactions that influence habitat use of 
mangrove crabs. Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA. 167 pp. 
[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This study 
examines the relative importance of biological and physical factors in the microhabitat 
use and distribution of four species of crabs in mangrove forests in south Florida 
including Florida Bay. Three aspects were investigated: (1) Estimation of risk of 
predation among microhabitats in the mangrove; (2) Evaluations of competitive 
interactions for refuges; and (3) Definition of suitable physiological microhabitats and 
measurements of responses to exposure in microhabitats in the field. The four species 
of mangrove crabs, Aratus pisonii, Eurytium limosum, Sesarma curacaoense, and Uca 
thayeri broadly overlap in habitat use and share periodic shifts in microhabitat 
locations. Field experiments show a differential risk of predation among microhabitats 
by tide levels and show that a change in predation intensity and predator type results in 
strong tidal and seasonal components of refuges. Crabs must balance the constraints of 
physiological tolerances with the avoidance of predation. No single physiological factor 
can be labeled as the cause of distributional patterns. 

1982 - 1986 

Parsons, G. R. (1993) Geographic variation in reproduction between two populations of the 
bonnethead shark, Sphyrna tiburo. Environ. Biol. Fishes. 38(1-3):25-35. 

A study of two populations of the bonnethead shark, Sphyrna tiburo, was conducted in 
Florida Bay and Tampa Bay, Florida from September 1982 to December 1986. The 
maintenance of sharks in captivity at the Marine Science and Conservation Center in the 
Florida Keys, and the collection of sharks from widely separated geographical areas 
allowed the examination of latitudinal variation in reproduction. Several reproductive 
parameters were found to differ: (1) size at maturation, (2) age at maturation, (3) 
time of fertilization, (4) rate of embryonic development, (5) size at birth, (6) the 
energetic investment in producing offspring, (7) gestation period, and (8) the incidence 
of infertility. Average litter size and maximum age of females was not different 
between the two populations. These contrasting life history parameters are not easily 
explained. Food limitation and seasonal differences between the two areas are 
considered as factors controlling reproduction in these populations. It is noteworthy 
that the average size of adult females in Tampa Bay is significantly greater than that of 
Florida Keys sharks. This size difference may be important in explaining the observed 
differences in reproduction. 

1982 - 1986 

Parsons, G. R. (1993) Age determination and growth of the bonnethead shark Sphyrna 
tiburo: A comparison of two populations. Mar. Biol. (Berlin), 117 (1):23-31. 


273 




From July 1982 to December 1986, a study of the age and growth of the bonnethead 
shark Sphyrna tiburo was conducted in Tampa and Florida Bays. Tetracycline-injected 
sharks held in captivity and, to a lesser extent, tagged, released and recaptured, were 
utilized for validating the annual nature of the rings (herein defined as the narrow, 
translucent regions) appearing on vertebral centra. The technique was validated for all 
age groups (0 to 6 + yr) included in the study. Marginal increment analysis likewise 
suggested annual ring formation. The rings formed during the winter, when water 
temperatures were lowest. Using the vertebral ring aging-technique, von Bertalanffy 
growth curves for males and females from both Tampa and Florida Bays were 
constructed. Growth of sharks born and held in captivity demonstrated that the male 
and female growth curves diverge after -1 yr and that mean sizes at age are 
statistically distinct after -2 yr. In both populations, females grew to larger sizes than 
males and apparently are longer-lived. Reproductively mature females from Tampa Bay 
were significantly larger than those from Florida Bay. 


1983 0 

Bert, T. M., J. W. Dodrill, G. E. Davis, and J. T. Tilmant (1983) The population dynamics of 
the stone crab (Menippe mercenaria) in Everglades and Biscayne Parks. Fla. Sci. . 46 (Suppl. 
1 ): 2 4 . 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Temporal and 
spatial variations in the distribution, relative abundance, sex ratio, size class 
frequency, and reproductive effort of stone crabs were assessed for one year 
throughout South Florida nearshore national park waters using traps. The data indicate 
that a major nursery area for stone crabs exists offshore from southwest Florida's 
two major terrestrial drainage-systems, the Big Cypress and Everglades estuaries 
Stone crabs apparently disperse from that area southward toward the Florida Keys and 
into Florida Bay. The stone crabs in Biscayne National Park are apparently not locally 
recruited and may be dispersing from farther north along the east coast of Florida. 


1983 0 

Bielsa, L. M., H. Murdich and R. F. Labisky (1983) Species profiles: life histories and 
environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates (south Florida) - pink 
shrimp. US Fish Wildlife Service FWS/OBS-82/11.17. US Army Corps of Engineers, TR 
EL-82-4. 21 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This citation is a species profile 
of the pink shrimp. It covers taxonomy, identification, life history, fisheries, 
ecological role, and environmental requirements. 


1 983 

Harrigan, P., J. C. Zieman, and S. A. Macko (1989) The base of nutritional support for the 
gray snapper: an evaluation based on a combined stomach content and stable isotope 
analysis. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. 
SfiL, 44(1 ):65-77. 

A combined stomach content and stable isotope analysis was used to determine if 
seagrass provided a base of nutritional support to the gray snapper, Lutjanus griseus. 
The work was done from June to September 1983. The results provided a quantitative 
evaluation of the relative contribution of carbon and nitrogen from various primary 
organic sources to gray snapper taken from a mangrove site (southeast Whitewater 
Bay) and a seagrass dominated location (near Schooner Bank). Stomach content analysis 
revealed that gray snapper from the two areas had similar diets which were primarily 
composed of penaeid shrimp (>60%). Isotopic results provided a distinction between 
food webs on the basis of carbon values. The 5 13 C of components from the seagrass 
location were greater than -17 %o in contrast to values of less than -19 °/ 00 for 


274 





those from the mangrove area. Quantitative estimates indicated that gray snapper from 
the seagrass area derived more than 90 %o of their carbon and nitrogen from 
sediment or water column particulate organic matter. Gray snapper from the mangrove 
area were supplied by carbon and nitrogen from these sources in addition to detritus. 
The main contributors appeared to be particulate organic matter from the water column 
and the brackish water grass, Ruppia maritima. Together, these sources accounted for 
35 to 100% of the ultimate source of prey item dietary carbon and nitrogen. These 
results suggest that within both food webs carbon and nitrogen are transferred from a 
detrital base by similar mechanisms and emphasize the use of multiple isotopes as a 
tool for quantitatively evaluating food webs. 


1983 0 

Hendrix, G. Y., and J. M. Morehead (1983) Everglades National Park: Imperiled wetland. 
AMBIQ . 20(3-4):153-7. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This paper 
reports on the present status of the Everglades National Park, a wetland under fire 
from various developmental and recreational interests. A brief historical resume of the 
Park is presented including water delivery alterations, declines in wading bird 
populations and of park fisheries, endangered species protection, and invasions of 
exotic species were discussed as well as the mission of the park's South Florida 
Research Center - to monitor the effects of water management upon the ecology of the 
Everglades. 


1983 0 

Jenkins, R. V. (1983) A comparison of Florida Bay marine banks and "rock reefs' of the 
Miami Limestone in the Everglades National Park. Geol. Soc. Am. Abs. . 15(1): 1. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] In Everglades 
National Park, long, linear, low (0.3 m) topographic highs occur in the Pleistocene 
Miami Limestone. Morphologically similar features are accumulating today in Florida 
Bay as marine mudbanks. The origin of the 'rock reefs" has been proposed as being 
controlled by preexisting topographic features, structurally controlled, sedimentary 
depositional features, or diagenetically controlled erosional features. To learn more 
about the "rock reefs," the mud banks in Florida Bay were studied for comparative 
purposes. Significant differences in texture and grain size indicate the "rock reefs* are 
not sedimentary depositional features similar to the mudbanks. The reefs show no 
structural or topographical control. Evidence indicated the reefs are diagenetically 
controlled erosional features. 


1983 

Nelsen, J. E., and R. N. Ginsburg (1986) Calcium' carbonate production by epibionts on 
Thalassia in Florida Bay. J. Sed. Petrol. . 56:622-8. 

Annual production of lime mud by two genera of red algae and one genus of serpulid 
worms was estimated for an area of modern lime mud accumulation in eastern Florida 
Bay. The red algae Melobesia membranacea and Fosliella farinosa and the serpulid worm 
Spirobis sp. live as epibionts on the leaves of Thalassia testudinum, the extensive 
marine grass. The lime mud produced by the epibionts was estimated by quantifying: 
(1) the life span of Thalassia, (2) the abundance of Thalassia, and (3) the average 
amount of epibiont calcium carbonate per blade. The estimate also accounts for both 
aerial variations in standing crop and seasonal variations in growth rate of Thalassia. 
The estimated annual production of epibiont carbonate is 118 ± 44 g m 2 yr’ 1 , over six 
times more than the estimated production by the green alga Penicillus capitatus from 
the same area. This leads to the conclusion that the epibionts on Thalassia produce 
significant amounts of lime mud in Florida Bay. This result is close to the published 


275 





estimate for epibiont production in Jamaica of 180 g m ' 2 yr* 1 , but it is significantly 
less than a published estimate for epibiont production in Barbados. Turtle grass has 
been around since the late Cretaceous, and algae most likely have had a longer history. 
Therefore, epibionts may have been significant contributors since the late Cretaceous. 


1983 0 

Sorensen, C. E. (1983) Relationship of geochemical, biological, and sedimentological 
parameters in basins in Florida Bay, Florida. Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. . 15(1 ):1. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] 
This abstract presents information on recent studies of geochemical (C0 2 , 0 2 , pH, 
salinity), biological, and sedimentological (turbidity, grain size, composition) 
parameters within three basins (Madeira Bay, Captain and Shell Key basins) of Florida 
Bay. Preliminary results indicate that in all basins, as turbidity and pH increase, 0 2 , 
C0 2 and salinity decrease, proximity of sampling sites to tidal channels effects 
sedimentological and geochemical parameters, and faunal and floral distributions which 
effect geochemical parameters are dependent on depth. Between basins, grain-size and 
floral-faunal diversity increases in those basins with “normal" marine geochemical 
parameters. 

1983 - 1984 

Ehrhardt, N. M., D. J. Die, and V. R. Restrepo (1990) Abundance and impact of fishing on a 
stone crab ( Menippe mercenaria) population in Everglades National Park, Florida. Bull. Mar. 
Sci. . 46(2):31 1-23. 

The stone crab ( Menippe mercenaria) supports an important commercial fishery in 
southwest Florida. Heavy commercial exploitation of stone crab stocks in Everglades 
National Park prompted statements of concern about their status of utilization. During 
the 1983 and 1984 fishing seasons, tagging studies, diving surveys and monitoring of 
commercial fishing operations were implemented to assess abundance and rate of 
exploitation of localized stocks. Results indicate that an important stock is centered in 
the area off Cape Sable. The fishing season (15 October - 15 May) corresponded to a 
period between two consecutive recruitment seasons. An adult male stock recruited in 
the spring and summer of 1984 was almost fully utilized during the first 5 months of 
the season. The fishery was subsequently sustained by new 1985 spring recruitment. 
Abundance estimated for different population fractions resulted in similar relative 
seasonal trends. Fishing mortality associated with the 1984 fishing season was 0.751 
while expected natural mortality rate for the same period was 0.939. On an annual 
basis, exploitation rate for the stock is 0.318, which represents a 63.6% level of 
stock utilization. It is concluded that the fishing season may have a dual role of 
protecting berried females during peak summer spawning, as well as acting as a buffer 
against fishing exploitation. Under new regulations all commercial fishing activities in 
the Park ceased as of 31 December 1985. The need for assessment work to study 
population growth under conditions of no exploitation is indicated. 

1983 - 1984 

Harrigan, P. (1986) The food web of the gray snapper, Lutjanus griseus, a stable isotope 
approach. M. S. Thesis. University, of Viriginia, Charlottesville, VA. 117 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] To determine if 
gray snapper, Lutjanus griseus, are dependent on seagrass as a base of nutritional 
support, a combined stomach content analysis and stable carbon and isotope analysis 
was utilized to assess the contribution of various primary organic sources to its food 
web from, each, a seagrass dominated (Florida Bay) and a mangrove dominated 
(Whitewater Bay) area. The results from the stomach contents analysis indicated that 
gray snapper from each food web had similar diets, consisting mostly of shrimp 


276 




supplemented by fish or fish and crabs. Isotopic results reveal that the food webs are 
isotopically similar to the dominant vegetation. Estimates of trophic level fractionation 
were 3.2 and 1.3% for nitrogen and carbon respectively. Both qualitative and 
quantitative results suggest that nutritional support to food web members is derived 
from seagrass in the seagrass dominated location and from mangrove, Rhizophora 
mangle, and benthic vegetation, Ruppia maritima, in the mangrove dominated area. 
Despite the isotopic distinction between areas, within each food web carbon and 
nitrogen are transferred through a detrital food web by similar mechanisms. 

1983 - 1984 

Lapointe, B. E. (1989) Macroalgal production and nutrient relations in oligotrophic areas of 

Florida Bay. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. 

Sci. . 44(1 ):312-23. 

Abundant macroalgae of southern Florida Bay were assayed during 1983 and 1984 for 
nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) limitation of productivity by enrichment effects on in 
situ growth rate, tissue C: N: P molar ratios, and capacity of alkaline phosphatase. 
Growth of two frondose rhodophytes, Cracilaria tikvahiae and Laurencia poitei was 
stimulated primarily by P (although N was also limiting during winter) as was growth 
of two frondose phaeophytes, Sargassum polyceratium and Sargassum pteropleuron. 
Tissue C:P and N:P ratios of the unenriched rhodophytes were elevated, ranging from 
1,080 to 1,939 and 75 to 147, respectively; C:P and N: P ratios of the unenriched 
phaeophytes were lower, ranging from 550 to 1,307 and 23 to 25, respectively. These 
tissue ratios support the primary P limitation suggested by the growth assays and 
suggest that phylogenetic differences may exist in storage and utilization of N and P 
compounds relative to C. Levels of dissolved inorganic nutrients (NH 4 + , N0 3 ', and 
P0 4 ‘ 3 ) in seawater during these studies also suggest that P, relative to N, was most 
limiting during summer months when N0 3 ' and NH 4 + were seasonally elevated and 
seawater N:P ratios were >30:1. Assays for alkaline phosphatase activity in 
phylogenetically diverse forms of Florida Bay macroalgae indicated broadly different 
capacities of this exoenzyme, with the highest rates observed for Dictyota divaricata 
and L. poitei and the lowest rates for G. tikvahiae. Considering that D. divaricata and L. 
poitei had the greatest observed capacity for this enzyme and that these and related 
species are particularly abundant in southern Florida Bay, utilization of dissolved 
organic phosphate pools appears to be ecologically important to sustaining productivity 
of indigenous frondose macroalgae in P-limited Florida Bay. The study sites were at Big 
Pine Key in the Florida Keys and at Content Key in the Bay. 

1983 - 1984 

Larson, D. K., and A. P. Ramus (1984) Distribution of caridean shrimp (Decapoda: 

Natantia:Caridea) in the shallow waters of western Florida Bay. Fla. Sci. . 47(suppl. 1):20. 

In conjunction with ongoing research on the settlement behavior of penaeid shrimp in 
Florida Bay, data has been collected for caridean shrimp. Species richness, distribution 
and abundance of caridean shrimp in shallow seagrass habitat bordering mangrove 
islands of Johnson Key Basin were studied from November 1983 to the present. A 
series of transects, 20 m long, were located perpendicular to the shoreline of the 
islands. Shrimp were collected from square meter plots located at regular intervals 
along the transects. Of six caridean shrimp species recorded, dominants included Thor 
floridanus, Hippolyte pleuracanthus, and Palaemonetes intermedius. Also, numbers of 
Tozeuma carolinense were observed to increase at offshore sites dominated by 
Thalassia testudinum. Total numbers of caridean shrimp were as high as 322 shrimp 
m' 2 . Preliminary results indicate that greatest species richness and peak abundance of 
caridean shrimp occur at the Haladule wrightii and Thallassia transition zone. 


277 




1983 - 1985 

Ehrhardt, N. M. (1985) Cooperative stone crab research program Everglades National Park. 
Final Rep. University of Miami (RSMAS) to US Fish and Wildlife Service and South Florida 
Research Center, Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 55 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Several surveys 
conducted to assess the amount and spatial distribution of stone crabs traps fished in 
Park waters showed that during the period of this study, fishing for stone crabs was 
substantially reduced from past trends and that most fishing operations were 
restricted to an area along the coast of Cape Sable, and to a lesser extent on the 
southeast boundary of the park, along the Florida Keys. The sampling design used in this 
study assessed the stone crabs stocks exploited off Cape Sable and abundance estimates 
were obtained by direct censuses mostly through diving and by tagging. An analysis of 
the temporal-spatial location of increased stock abundance demonstrated that fishing 
operations were closely associated with areas of maximum crab abundance. Standing 
stock abundances in the study area ranged from 200,000 to 1,333,000 individuals 
based on diver surveys. Population size estimates based on tagging experiments 
indicated that an average of 35,071 males were in the study area during October 1984 
and that this population level declined to 15,211 males through February 1985 as a 
result of fishing exploitation. Based on catchability coefficients, instantaneous 
mortality rates, it was concluded that the exploitation rate observed (0.50) during the 
1984/85 fishing season in the Cape Sable area was 88.8% of that required to fully 
exploit the stock. Without a closed season a severe overexploitation of this resource 
would occur. 

1983 - 1985 

Scott, G. P., M. R. Dewey, L. J. Hansen, R. E. Owen, and E. S. Rutherford (1989) How many 
mullet are there in Florida Bay? Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. 
June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1 ):89-107. 

A fishery independent sampling survey design was implemented in Florida Bay to 
estimate the monthly biomass of mullet (Mugil spp.) in the area during 1983 - 1985. 
The method was an application of aerial visual sampling, photogrammetric sampling, 
and shipboard sea-truth sampling. Aerial visual sampling was used to estimate the 
density (D M ) and number of "muds' in the study area. Photogrammetric sampling was 
used to estimate mud surface area, and shipboard sampling was used to estimate the 
proportion of muds containing mullet and the biomass of mullet per unit area of mud (b). 
Total biomass was estimated as the product of these four variables. The method applied 
proved to be appropriate for silver mullet. Biomass of silver mullet estimates were 
found to be characterized by a high degree of variation (CV = 35%), owing primarily to 
variability of estimates of b and D M . Mud density estimates were found to be a 
relatively precise (CV = 20%) index of presumed mullet abundance based on comparison 
with fishery data. Bias was estimated to result in underestimation of mullet biomass on 
the order of a factor of 9.6 to more than 19.0. The major source of bias was due to 
estimates of b. Estimated monthly harvest of silver mullet in April-December 1984 
ranged from 2.4 to 12.0% of the bias-adjusted estimates of biomass. 

1983 - 1985 

Loftus, W. F. (1987) Possible establishment of the Mayan cichlid, Cichlasoma urophthalmus 
(Gunther) (Pisces: Cichlidae), Everglades National Park, Florida. Fla. Sci. . 50( 1): 1 -6. 

The first United States collections of the Mayan cichlid (Cichlasoma urophthalmus), a 
native of Central America, were made in January 1983 in Everglades National Park. 
The estuarine sampling site was Snook Creek, which empties into Joe Bay, 
northeastern Florida Bay. Subsequent surveys have shown that its distribution is 
limited to two areas in the Taylor Slough drainage basin. Several dozen specimens, both 


278 




juveniles and adults, ranging from 54.0 mm to 191.0 mm SL, were collected and 
observed from 1983 to 1985. The larger population inhabits an estuarine creek system 
where spawning was observed in 1984 and 1985 at salinities of 26 %o and 10 %o, 
respectively. A smaller population occurs in a strictly freshwater habitat subject to 
seasonally-fluctuating water levels. Establishment of the Mayan cichlid is indicated by 
observations of spawning activity, the wide range of specimen lengths, and its 
persistence for three years in Park waters. The potential for range expansion is 
enhanced by its exceptional tolerance of changes in salinity and water levels and its 
ability to colonize varied habitats. These data suggest that the Mayan cichlid may 
become a permanent member of Florida's ichthyofauna. The source of the introduction 
remains unknown. 

1983 - 1984 

Powell, G. V. N., J. W. Fourqurean, W. J. Kenworthy, and J. C. Zieman (1991) Bird colonies 
cause seagrass enrichment in a subtropical estuary: observational and experimental 
evidence. Est. Coastal Shelf Sci. . 32:567-79. 

Colonies/roosts of piscivorous birds in Florida Bay concentrate nutrients by feeding 
away from their colonies/roosts and returning with food for young and to defecate. 
Seagrass beds surrounding the colony islands were markedly different from those 
around similar islands that did not contain colonies. Seagrass standing crop was 
enhanced up to 200 m from bird colony islands compared with islands without colonies. 
Perches were placed in shallow water and were monitored during 1983 - 1984. The 
species of seagrass were also different at colonies, where Halodule wrightii and Ruppia 
maritima predominated in zones close to the colony islands. Around islands without 
colonies, only Thalassia testudinum was present. Experimental bird perches placed to 
stimulate concentrated bird presence produced changes in adjacent seagrass meadows 
that were similar to differences between islands with colonies and those without. Over 
5 yrs, seagrass standing crop increased around the experimental perches, and species 

dominance shifted from T. testudinum to H. wrightii. No similar changes occurred at 

control locations. These experimental results indicate that the bird concentrations are 
responsible for the observed differences in seagrass communities surrounding islands 
that contain colonies. These enriched areas are significant to the seagrass ecosystem 
because many seagrasses in Florida Bay appear to be nutrient-limited. Demersal fish 
and invertebrate density and species richness have been shown to be a function of the 
seagrass standing crop and species composition, so the changes in seagrasses 

stimulated by localized bird concentrations have the capacity to alter the entire 

community structure. 

1983 - 1985 

Zieman, J. C., and J. W. Fourqurean (1985) The distribution and abundance of benthic 
vegetation in Florida Bay, Everglades National Park. Final Rep. Contract CX5280-2-2204, 
University of Virginia. South Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park, 
Homestead, FL. 105 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This study was 
undertaken to delineate and describe the benthic vegetation communities in the 
submerged portions of Florida Bay. Distributional, standing crop, productivity and 
isotope data along with water characteristics and sediment properties were used to 
identify seven primary benthic vegetational communities in Florida Bay: Northeast, 
East Central, Interior, Atlantic, Gulf, Mainland, and Conchie Channel. Some of these 
communities were qualitatively compared to communities described in earlier studies. 
The importance of environmental factors (salinity, temperature, and light) on 
controlling the distribution and extent of these communities in Florida Bay was 
discussed. This report also provides complete data sets for qualitative descriptions of 


279 



each study site, quantitative standing crop data, leaf mark and 14 C uptake productivity 
data. 

1983 - 1987 

Powell, W. M., W. J. Kenworthy, and J. W. Fourqurean (1989) Experimental evidence for 

nutrient limitation of seagrass growth in a tropical estuary with restricted circulation. Bull. 

Mar. Sci. . 44:324-40. 

We studied the impacts of additions of nutrients to a seagrass community on a 
carbonate mudbank in Florida Bay. Shallow mudbanks dampen lunar tide in Florida Bay, 
and empoundment and channelization of the upland watershed (the Everglades) have 
reduced freshwater input, resulting in restricted circulation and reduced nutrient 
availability. Nutrients were supplied by seabirds defecating from experimental roosts. 
Seabirds used the roosts approximately 7% of the time so the input of nutrients was 
constant and quantifiable. The birds delivered approximately 2 - 4 g of excrement per 
day, resulting in an average loading rate of 0.052 g N and 0.009 g P m' 2 d-i. Only a 
portion of the excrement is immediately released as inorganic NH 3 and P0 4 ; about 80% 
reaches the sediment surface in a relatively insoluble form. There was a significant 
buildup of phosphate and ammonium in the pore water at the enriched, sites. The 
ammonium profile of low concentrations at the surface and then increasing with a steep 
slope through 20 cm suggests a rapid uptake and demand for mineralized nitrogen. 
Phosphorus in contrast had relatively high levels at the surface. Nutrient addition 
significantly increased areal leaf production and standing crop of Thalassia testudinum 
and Halodule wrightii. Above ground biomass at enriched sites averaged twice controls 
while below ground biomass was not significantly different between fertilized and 
control plots. Increased standing crop was produced primarily through longer, wider 
blades by Thalassia and longer blades and increased short shoot density by Halodule. 
Thalassia areal leaf production was 60% greater at enriched sites than at controls. 
Halodule areal leaf production increased by three orders of magnitude at enriched sites. 
Tissue nutrient content and nitrogen fixation assays suggest that phosphorus 
availability limits seagrass growth in unenriched conditions, but that nitrogen becomes 
limiting with the addition of bird excrement. 


1 984 

Ducommun, J. J., and C. D. Burke (1987) Interpretation of paleosalinities from two cores 
from Florida Bay. The Compass . 64(2):82-88. 

Florida Bay encompasses a wide variety of paleosalinity environments. The distribution 
of ostracode and foraminifer taxa in this area can be used to interpret the fluctuations 
in salinity that occur in the Bay. Populations of microfossils from Florida Bay were 
analyzed from two cores. Interpretation of these assemblages suggests that salinity 
ranged from normal marine to brackish water. Analysis of population parameters with 
statistical tests (e g, Kruskal - Wallis, Log ANOVA) suggests that the two cores 
originated from different environments. These statistical tests, however, could not 
pinpoint environmental changes within cores. 


1 984 

Fonseca, M. S., G. W. Thayer, and W. J. Kenworthy (1987) The use of ecological data in the 
implementation and management of seagrass restorations. Fla. Mar. Res. PubL 42:175-87. 
Effective restoration of seagrass systems can be implemented best through 
incorporation of basic ecological data into decision-making processes. The data are 
comprised mainly of seagrass population growth and coverage models. Careful selection 
of a site to be transplanted and monitored under strict performance standards offers 
functional restoration of a system. Environmental factors such as light, temperature, 
salinity, tidal range, and sediment stability may be used to determine a priori whether 


280 






seagrass growth could be supported at a given site. On-site restoration directly 
addresses a return of ecosystem productivity. From an ecological perspective, off- 
impact-site restoration often results in the selection of sites unacceptable as a 
mitigative tradeoff. These data suggest that unvegetated patches among natural 
meadows should not be transplanted as a method to compensate for destruction of 
existing meadows. Most important for effective management is the utilization of 
seagrass-population-growth models in the planning process. These data allow (1) 
selection of the appropriate species for the site in question, (2) setting of precise and 
testable performance standards, (3) accurate planning of the transplanting operation, 
including spacing between plantings, (4) development of a monitoring program, and (5) 
an objective determination by regulatory agencies as to when compliance has been 
achieved. This transplantation study took place during April 1984 in several sites in the 
Florida Keys including sites on the Bay side. 


1984 0 

Mahadevan, S., J. Sprinkel, D. Heatwole, and D. H. Wooding (1984) A review and annotated 
bibliography of benthic studies in the coastal and estuarine areas of Florida. Florida Sea 
Grant Rep. No. 66. 576 pp. 

The intention of this report is to provide the reader with a reference document on 
available information (published and unpublished) on the benthic environment and its 
flora and fauna of Florida's estuarine and coastal areas. To facilitate ease of use, the 
annotated bibliography is arranged by counties. The hope is that this report will serve 
as a starting point for the investigators of benthic studies to be conducted in the next 
few decades. As is frequently the case with literature reviews, this report is already 
out of date beyond 1982. The methodological references compiled are intended to aid 
the investigator's awareness of the variety of methods available and to hopefully guide 
the investigator in choosing the best available methodology for achieving study 
objectives. The taxonomic references compiled are intended to help the investigator by 
making available a majority of keys, descriptions and guides, thereby improving the 
taxonomic adequacy of the study. We hope that his report will also be helpful to 
resource managers, regulators, and interveners by providing basic historical 
information in their respective areas of concern. A compilation of over 1500 papers 
were compiled for the report. 


1984 

Merriam, D. F., S. Sengupta, and P. J. Zimmerman (1985) Regional variation of water- 
chemical properties affecting the water/sediment interface in Florida Bay. The Compass . 
62(2): 106-1 5. 

Florida Bay is a large triangular-shaped area in southern Florida bounded on the north 
by the Everglades on the mainland, on the south and southeast by the Keys and is open 
to the Gulf of Mexico on the southwest and west. The recently flooded Bay (in the last 
approximately 5,000 yrs), floored by the Pleistocene Miami Limestone, is shallow, 
usually less than 10 ft, and contains grove-covered islands. The Bay is a prolific 
carbonate factory and of interest to researchers as a modern analog to ancient 
conditions. Recent studies have emphasized the water/sediment interface, geographic 
variation of different parameters of both Recent and Pleistocene units, and the most 
recent history of the Bay as interpreted from shallow, soft-sediment cores. Water 
properties of salinity, pH, dissolved C0 2 and 0 2 and turbidity are important factors 
along with physical parameters in determining the origin, distribution, and accumulation 
of the Recent sediments. In January 1984, 21 stations were occupied in the Bay and 
samples taken and analyzed on site with a portable chemical kit. These spatial data 
were subjected to trend-surface analysis to determine the regional pattern of values 
for each variable. Salinity is normal marine in the center of the Bay decreasing to 


281 



brackish conditions along margins. Dissolved 0 2 decreases toward the center of the Bay 
as do the pH and turbidity. In general, the salinity and C0 2 of the water decrease as 0 2 , 
pH, and turbidity increase. These conditions are the result of a complex interplay of 
basin configuration, circulation, dilution and pollution, animal activity and vegetation, 
light, temperature, agitation, sediment availability, and many other variables. 


1984 0 

Quinn, T. M. (1984) Evolution of selected Holocene mangrove-fringed islands of west- 

central Florida Bay. M. S. Thesis. Wichita State University, Wichita, KS. 114 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Florida Bay is a large, 
triangular-shaped, shallow water, marine embayment which occupies an area of 
approximately 1550 sq km between the Florida Keys on the southeast, and the Florida 
mainland on the north. Calcium carbonate is being produced in situ by a variety of green 
algae, whereas the remainder of the sediment is composed of molluscan-foraminifera 
shell fragments. This sediment is being deposited unconformably on the surface of the 
southwestwardly gently sloping Pleistocene Miami Limestone. The variability in the 
stratigraphic history of the Holocene mangrove-fringed islands of Florida Bay, as 
revealed by numerous cores, suggests that there may be fundamental differences in the 
processes involved in island evolution between islands that developed in northeastern 
and north Florida Bay than from those islands that developed in west-central Florida 
Bay. This suggests a revised model for carbonate-sediment deposition in the area of 
west-central Florida Bay. The sedimentary record and principal sedimentary 
environments in this area in upward succession are: (1) freshwater carbonate mud that 
developed from shallow, freshwater ponds; (2) a transgressive peat which reflects the 
changing of environments from freshwater marsh and swamps, to brackish-water 
conditions, and finally paralic mangrove swamps; (3) molluscan packstone unit that was 
deposited in a littoral environment; and (4) supratidal mudstone, that developed from a 
coastal tidal flat where the rate of deposition was greater than the rate of Holocene 
sealevel rise. It seems that island evolution as a function of mangrove colonization of 
mudbanks is a more recent phenomena, and that islands that formed earlier in the 
history of the marine inundation of the Bay in west-central Florida Bay nucleated from 
a coastal tidal flat that developed on a transgressive peat deposit. 


1984 

Sengupta, S. (1985) Recent carbonate sedimentation in Florida Bay: A study to define 

major subenvironments. M. S. Thesis. Wichita State University, Wichita, KS. 135 pp. 

Florida Bay is a large triangular-shaped area in southern Florida bounded on the north 
by the Everglades, on the southeast and south by the Gulf of Mexico. The environment in 
Florida Bay is influenced by the freshwater runoff from the Everglades, ground water 
seeping through the 'basement rocks', rainfall, and marine waters from the Atlantic 
Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. The relation of water properties such as salinity, pH, 
dissolved oxygen, dissolved carbon dioxide, turbidity, calcium, and magnesium along 
with sedimentological, geochemical, and biological properties of the Recent sediments 
collected in Florida Bay were used to determine the subenvironments. Statistical data 
analysis of these spatial data reveals that: (a) salinity increases from brackish to 
marine towards center of Bay; (b) pH is normal marine towards center of Bay, and it 
increases towards the mainland and Keys; (c) turbidity increases towards the 
mainland; (d) dissolved oxygen decreases towards the center of the Bay; and (e) 
dissolved carbon dioxide increases towards the center of the Bay. The statistical 
analysis allows definition of four subenvironments extant in the Bay: three peripheral 
ones - Northern, Gulf, and Atlantic, and an interior restricted environment. The 
subenvironments show a distinct change in their orientation from the winter to the 


282 


summer. These changes are attributed to various causes chief among them being wind 
direction, nutrient supply, rainfall, water circulation, and basin configuration. 
Geochemical analysis indicated that the waters of Florida bay are supersaturated with 
respect to calcium carbonate. Inorganic precipitation of calcium carbonate can occur in 
certain regions of the Bay, particularly in the Northern subenvironment. X-ray 
diffraction studies indicate no evidence for diagenesis in the mineralogy of the 
sediments from Florida Bay. Forty one stations were sampled during 1984. 


1984 0 

Tebeau, C. W. (1974) South Florida water management. Environments of South Florida: 
Present and Past. Memoir 2. P. J. Gleason (ed.). Miami Geological Society, Coral Gables, FL. 
362-6. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.) This citation is a historical 
review of water management in South Florida. 


1984 0 

VanArman, J. (1984) South Florida's estuaries. Environments of South Florida: Present and 
Past II . P. J. Gleason (ed.). Miami Geological Society, Coral Gables, FL. 79-96. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.) The coastal estuaries are among 
the most threatened natural environments in Florida. They exist where freshwater 
runoff from the uplands, streams and rivers meets the sea and are under continual 
threat from land development, pollution and dredge and fill activities, as well as 
commercial and recreational overuse. Florida’s estuaries are similar in structure to 
estuaries throughout the world. However due to location and climate, they support 
biological communities that are unique within the continental United States. These 
estuaries were formed through combined forces of reef building, land subsidence, 
sedimentation, periodic storms and a gradual rise in sea level during the last 4000 to 
6000 yrs. Man's activities during the last century have resulted in five major types of 
adverse impacts: (1) changes in natural watershed characteristics have severely 
altered inflow of freshwater, nutrients and sediments; (2) structural changes have 
occurred to stabilize inlets, create and maintain channels and modify shorelines; (3) the 
timing and quantity of freshwater inflow have been altered; (4) water quality has been 
degraded through the introduction of excessive nutrients and pollutants; and (5) benthic 
and shoreline communities have been destroyed or extensively damaged. Twelve major 
estuarine areas of South Florida are identified. A physical description, summary of 
research, discussion of problems, and survey of current management studies are 
presented for each estuary. A list of references for the region and for each estuary is 
provided as a guide to the literature. These studies and the level of current interest 
indicate that major efforts are underway to analyze and resolve the problems of South 
Florida's estuaries. The result will be a substantial increase in knowledge and our 
ability to manage these systems. 

1984 - 1985 

Bryant, H. E., M. R. Dewey, N. A. Funicelli, G. M. Ludwig, D. A. Meineke, and L. J. Mengel 
(1989) Movement of five selected sports species of fish in Everglades National Park. Symp. 
on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44( 1 ):515. 
[ABSTRACT ONLY.) Studies to determine movement of spotted seatrout, Cynoscion 
nebulosus, red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus, gray snapper, Lutjanus griseus, black drum, 
Poganias cromis, sheepshead, Archosargus probatocephalus, were conducted in Florida 
Bay and along the west coast of Everglades National Park. A total of 3,237 fish of the 
five species were tagged from March 1984 to March 1985; 1,797 individuals from 
Florida Bay, and 1,440 individuals from the west coast were tagged. Spotted seatrout 
moved less than 6 km from point of tagging and had return rates of 3 and 1.6% for the 


283 







west coast and Florida Bay, respectively. Red drum moved less than 8 km. The fish that 
moved the greatest distances were the larger fish (over 750 mm). Red drum return 
rates were 9.4% for the west coast and 2% for Florida Bay. Gray snapper returns 
indicated movement to the southwest as the individuals grew. The mean distance 
traveled by these fish was 18.3 km. Black drum returns illustrated general northwest 
movement out of the park from January to April and substantiated the schooling 
behavior of the species. Sheepshead tag returns indicated that they remained near 
shore during the fall and early winter and were absent from these waters during the 
late winter. Maximum traveled distance was 10 m prior to spawning season. 

1984 - 1985 

Chester, A. J., and G. W. Thayer (1990) Distribution of spotted seatrout ( Cynoscion 

nebulosus) and gray snapper ( Lutjanus griseus) juveniles in seagrass habitats of western 

Florida Bay. Bull. Mar. Sci., 46(2): 345-57. 

The distribution, abundance, and biomass of juvenile spotted seatrout (Cynoscion 
nebulosus) and gray snapper (Lutjanus griseus) were evaluated along with information 
on seagrasses, sediments, water temperature, and salinity in basin and channel 
habitats of western and central Florida Bay during 1984 - 1985. Spotted seatrout 
juveniles were most prevalent in basin habitats in the western portion of the Bay, near 
the Gulf of Mexico, and were collected during every month sampled except May 
(1984); smallest individuals were collected during May (1985), June (1984, 1985), 
and July (1984). The habitats in which spotted seatrout occurred had deeper more 
organic sediments with greater density and biomass of the seagrass, Syringodium 
filiforme, than did non-seatrout areas (ANOVA, P < 0.05). Gray snapper juveniles were 
most prominent in channels of the southeastern part of the Bay but also occurred in 
basins located to the northwest. The presence or absence of gray snapper was related 
to the distribution of seagrass biomass, particularly that of Thalassia testudinum in the 
basins and Syringodium in the channels. These data suggested that seagrass meadows 
are critical habitats for spotted seatrout and gray snapper in the Bay. 

1984 - 1985 

Cooper, D. J. (1986) Variability in biogenic hydrogen sulfide emissions from selected 

Florida ecosystems. M. S. Thesis, University of Miami., Coral Gables, FL. 164 pp. 

Hydrogen sulfide emission fluxes were measured from several different habitats in 
Florida, characterizing a freshwater swamp, mangrove fringes, various tidal marshes 
and natural water surfaces. Variability in emission rates from different ecosystems is 
explained in terms of the availability of oxygen, sulfate and organic matter, whilst 

variability at the individual sampling locations is explained in terms of diel or tidal 

effects. Diel effects were found at all sites except where tidal inundation of reducing 
sediments was occurring. Soil surfaces exhibited an afternoon peak in emission rates 
with a broad night time minimum, while emissions from water surfaces peaked before 
dawn and had a broad minimum during the day. The lowest emitting soil surface in 
sawgrass (C. jamaicense) swamp had a range of 1.6 - 41 mg S (H 2 S) nrr 2 yr* 1 and the 
highest emitting soil surface in a spike grass ( D. spicata) tidal marsh had a range of 73 
- 1336 mg S m^yr* 1 . The lowest emitting water surface was a highly organic coastal 

water with a range of 0.6 - 19.6 mg S m' 2 yr' 1 and the highest emitting water surface 

was in the D. Spicata marsh with a range of 6.2 - 13100 mg S m^yr' 1 . Tidal effects 
were more dramatic, and occurred for brief periods as water inundated the sampling 
site. Individual flux measurements from bare sand in a S. alterniflora marsh ranged 
from 10.7 - 130400 mg S m' 2 yr' 1 from a mudflat in a mangrove fringe. Using 
different averaging techniques to account for the factors controlling emission rates in 
the various ecosystems, an annual flux of 1.8 x 10 9 S (H 2 S) yr' 1 can be calculated for 
the entire state of Florida. This is insignificant compared to the anthropogenic S0 2 flux 


284 



of over 5 x 10 11 g S (S0 2 ) yr' 1 , but because the highest H 2 S emissions are measured 
from specific plant communities (mangroves and tidal marshes), the natural input to the 
atmosphere may be important on a smaller scale. Measurements at Flamingo took place 
in 1984 and 1985. 

1984 - 1985 

Dewey, M. R., L. J. Mengel, N. A. Funicelli, H. E. Bryant, G. M. Ludwig, and D. A. Meineke 
(1989) Trammel net efficiency in the coastal waters of Everglades National Park. Symp. on 
Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1):516-7. 
Quantitative trammel net sampling was conducted in the Florida Bay from 1984 to 1985 
to obtain estuarine fish standing stock estimates. Efficiency tests were conducted to 
obtain more accurate estimates of standing stock from the net samples. Trammel net 
sampling efficiencies were calculated from spotted seatrout (Cynosion nebulosus), gray 
snapper (Lutjanus griseus), pinfish (Lagodon rhomboides), catfish, which included sea 
catfish (Arius felis) and gafftopsail catfish (Bagre marinus) and mullet, which included 
white mullet (Mugil curema) and striped mullet ( Mugil cephasus). Nine efficiency tests 
were conducted with mean efficiencies ranging from 29% for pinfish to 70% for 
catfish. Variability among replicates in set efficiency was high for each taxonomic 
group. No significant correlations were noted between high number of fish collected in 
the trammel net and efficiency of the set. With the methodology used in this study, an 
extensive number of tests would have to have been conducted to obtain minimally 
acceptable levels of accuracy and precision. Sampling efficiency of any one set appears 
to be influenced by a variety of often unmeasurable and unrecorded variables including 
method of deployment, strike efficiency, the differential behavior of species reacting 
to net deployment and strike, and variable habitat conditions sampled. 

1984 - 1985 

Ehrhardt, N. M. (1990) Mortality and catchability estimates for the stone crab ( Menippe 
mercenaria) in Everglades National Park. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 46(2):324-34. 

Estimates of natural mortality have not been reported for the stone crab Menippe 
mercenaria, yet this information is essential for describing the population dynamics of 
the species and to manage the stocks. In this study, mortality of adult males inhabiting 
an area off Cape Sable was estimated by sequential tagging experiments and by analysis 
of fishery statistics for the period October 1984 to May 1985. Natural mortality rates 
range from 0.780 to 6.867 per annum. Differences in the mortality estimates are 
attributed to dominance of specific size groups included in the tagging experiments, 
with mortality rates varying linearly with size of tagged individuals. The higher natural 
mortality rates corresponded to individuals with carapace widths at or above the 
average size at terminal molt. The mortality estimates were obtained from information 
gathered under exceptional circumstances and complexities of estimating these rates 
due to difficulties of aging crustaceans are recognized. This problem is further 
complicated in the stone crab fishery because only claws are harvested and landed, 
therefore, the true age composition of the stocks may never be known from standard 
commercial statistics. 

1984 - 1985 

Funicelli, N. A., D. A. Meineke, H. E. Bryant, M. R. Dewey, G. M. Ludwig, and L. S. Mengel 
(1989) Movements of striped mullet, Mugil cephalus, tagged in Everglades National Park, 
Florida. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull, Mar, 
SfiL, 44(1): 171 -8. 

The movements of striped mullet, Mugil cephalus, were studied from fish tagged in 
Everglades National Park. A total of 16,604 fish were tagged from March 1984 to 
September 1985. During the period of December 1984 through February 1985, 


285 






recaptured tagged fish moved significantly further and more northerly out of the Park's 
waters than they did the rest of the year. Tags were returned from 2.8% of the fish 
tagged along the west coast and from 0.3% of the fish tagged in Florida Bay and west 
coast mullet form a series of spatially overlapping stocks. 

1984 - 1985 

Hettler, W. F. (1989) Food habits of juveniles of spotted seatrout and gray snapper in 

Western Florida Bay. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. 
Bull, Mar, ScL 44( 1 ): 155-62. 

Stomach contents were analyzed from 144 juvenile spotted seatrout, Cynoscion 
nebulosus, and 215 juvenile gray snapper, Lutjanus griseus, collected by trawl or 
rotenone from shallow seagrass flats, deep bank channels, or mangrove prop root 
habitats in western Florida Bay. Collections took place in 1984 and 1985 and are 
detailed in Thayer and Chester (1989). Both species fed almost exclusively on 
crustaceans and fishes. Smaller non-decapod crustaceans—copepods, amphipods, and 
mysids were more abundant as measured by percent occurrence in the smallest size 
classes (<50 mm SL). Penaeid shrimp, the most numerous prey in both fishes, and 
caridean shrimp increased in percent occurrence as fish increased in size. Fish were 
important in the largest size classes, above 150 mm SL. Rainwater killifish, Lucania 
parva, was the most common fish consumed. About 20% of the trout and snapper had 
empty stomachs when collected in grass flats, whereas about 60% of both species had 
empty stomachs when taken in channels. Relatively few fish were collected in 
mangroves and none of these specimens contained penaeids. No prey species were 
identified in either gamefish that are not common in Florida Bay. 

1984 - 1985 

Holmquist, J. G., G. V. N. Powell, and S. M. Sogard (1989) Decapod and stomatopod 
assemblages on a system of seagrass-covered mud banks in Florida Bay. Mar. Biol. . 
100:473-83. 

The latticework of seagrass-covered mudbanks in Florida Bay divides the Bay into 
distinct subenvironments and supports a robust seagrass community subject to 
pronounced physical stress. Throw-trap sampling of decapods and stomatopods during 
1984 and 1985 (December - April, May - August and September - November of each 
year) showed that bank sides exposed to turbulence had low abundance but similar 
species richness to that of bank tops and sheltered sides. The fauna was more Gulf- 
Carolinean than Antillean. The sampling sites were near or at Lake Key, Pass Key, Eagle 
Key, Cross Bank, Cowpens Key, Buchanan Key, Oyster Key, and Murray Key. The 
crustacean communities of the different subenvironments, however, were distinct, 
with both Antillean and temperate assemblages represented and with one isolated area 
markedly depauperate. The two subenvironments adjacent to the Atlantic Ocean and 
Gulf of Mexico held the greatest densities. Multiple-regression techniques suggested 
that vegetational habitat characteristics played a secondary role compared to various 
physical factors. Restricted circulation (compounded by winter cold-fronts or other 
seasonal causes of density maxima, juxtaposed faunal provinces, and the wider salinity 
range of the isolated regions of the Bay may be primarily responsible for the strikingly 
different communities of the various subenvironments. [This work was also discussed 
in: Holmquist, J. G., G. V. N. Powell, and S. M. Sogard (1989) Decapod and stomatopod 
communities of seagrass-covered mudbanks in Florida Bay: inter- and intra-bank 
heterogeneity with special reference to isolated subenvironments. Symp. on Florida 
Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. ScL 44( 1 ):251 -62.] 


286 





1984 - 1985 

Ludwig, G. M., J. E. Skjeveland, and N. A. Funicelli (1990) Survival of Florida Bay fish 
tagged with internally anchored spaghetti tags. Fla. Sci. . 53:38-42. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Studies were 
conducted from January 1984 to September 1985 to determine movement and estimate 
population sizes of certain commercial and sport fishes in the coastal marine waters of 
the Everglades National Park (Florida Bay - Ten Thousand Islands) and experiments to 
determine mortality caused by tagging and the amount of tag shedding were conducted 
as part of that research. The percent survival of Florida Bay white mullet, striped 
mullet, spotted seatrout, and gray snapper marked with internally anchored spaghetti 
tags was 22, 67, 75, and 100, respectively. Unmarked fish of the same species had 
survival percentages of 27, 77, 75, and 100, respectively. Transporting the fish up to 
16 km from the point of capture did not significantly decrease survival in either tagged 
or untagged fish. 

1984 - 1985 

Mengel, L. J., M. R. Dewey, H. E. Bryant, N. A. Funicelli, G. M. Ludwig, and D. A. Meineke 
(1989) Relative abundance and standing stock estimates for finfish in Florida Bay trammel 
nets. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 
44(1 ):51 8-9. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY] This study was part of a cooperative effort by the US Fish and 
Wildlife Service, the National Park Service and NOAA/NMFS, to address the 
management needs of Everglades National Park. The relative abundance and standing 
stocks of the major sport and commercial fish species was estimated from quantitative 
trammel net samples. Usually, 60 random samples were collected throughout the Park 
each month: 42 in Florida Bay; 6 in Whitewater Bay; and 12 along the west coast. 
Standing stocks were estimated by dividing the average number of fish caught per set 
by the area sampled and multiplying it by the total area. Sample efficiency was 
determined by another study and reported separately. Efficiencies for standard sets 
varied from 6.8% for gray snapper to 58% for striped and white mullet. From June 
1984 to June 1985, 689 random sets yielded 86 species. Seventy-two species were 
taken in 477 sets in Florida Bay. Sixty species were taken in 135 sets on the west 
coast. Whitewater Bay (77 net sets) catches yielded 27 species. The west coast had 
consistently higher fish density than Florida Bay. The order of decreasing relative 
abundance for 10 most prevalent species in our Florida Bay catches were: pinfish, sea 
catfish, gray snapper, spotted seatrout, cravelle jack, grafftopsail catfish, striped 
mullet, white mullet and red fish. The order of decreasing relative abundance for 10 
most prevalent species in our west coast catches were sea catfish, grafftopsail 
catfish, striped mullet, spotted seatrout, pinfish, crevalle jack, white mullet, gray 
snapper, sheepshead and red drum. Monthly relative abundance was estimated by 
habitat type and physical parameters. Oyster reefs had the highest relative abundance 
of fish (70 fish/set) while sand and rock flats had the greatest species diversity (48 
species collected). 

1984 - 1985 

Perrine, D. (1987) Some possible effects of the declawing of female stone crabs, Menippe 
mercenaria. M. S. Thesis, University of Miami., Coral Gables, FL. 36 pp. 

Sixty female stone crabs (Menippe mercenaria) were paired and held in individual 
aquaria or individual cages in large tanks supplied with running seawater. One member 
of each pair had both claws removed. The other retained both claws. Otherwise both 
members received identical treatment. During a 4-month period (March-June, 1985) 
declawed crabs produced more egg masses than crabs with claws. This was significant 
(chi square goodness of fit; P < 0.05) for the first three months. The spawning season 


287 




for stone crabs is approximately April - September. Molting normally occurs in mature 
females in fall - winter following the completion of spawning. Molting has been shown to 
be accelerated by removal of claws early in the intermolt period. The observed 
increase in spawning by declawed crabs during the early months of the spawning season 
may be a result of interactions between the molting and spawning cycles, with both 
processes shifted forward in time as a reaction to declawing. 

1984 - 1985 

Powell, A. B., D. E. Hoss, W. F. Hettler, D. S. Peters, L. Simoneaux, and S. Wagner (1987) 
Abundance and distribution of ichthyoplankton in Florida Bay and adjacent waters. Final rep. 
SSFRC-87/01. South Florida Res. Center, Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 44 pp. 
An ichthyoplankton survey was carried on in Florida Bay and adjacent waters that 
focused on the abundance and distribution of larvae of four target species: red drum 
(Sciaenops ocellata), snook ( Centropomus undecimalis), gray snapper ( Lutjanus griseus) 
spotted seatrout ( Cynoscion nebulosus). Twenty sampling stations were established: 
eight to document larval entry into Florida Bay and adjacent estuarine waters, and 12 
within Florida Bay and adjacent estuarine waters to provide insight into larval fish 
distribution and movement. Ten larval fish collection trips were made during 1984 and 
1985. Spotted seatrout was the only target species whose larvae were regularly 
collected. No snook, one red drum and 16 potential gray snapper were collected. Based 
on the distribution of early stage larvae, spotted seatrout spawned in intermediate to 
high salinity waters within western Florida Bay and adjacent estuarine waters, but did 
not appear to spawn in brackish waters. We never collected spotted seatrout in the 
Keys area. Temporally, spotted seatrout have a protracted spawning season with 
spawning minimal during late fall and winter and most intense from May to September. 
Based on the absence of early larval stages, gray snapper, snook and red drum 
apparently spawn outside of the Everglades National Park. All larvae identified as 
snapper larvae were found in the ocean but young juveniles were found both in Florida 
Bay and the ocean. It appears that gray snapper spawn near offshore reefs in the 
Atlantic Ocean and at least some enter the Park as juveniles. The lack of larval snook 
and red drum in our samples does not indicate they are absent from the area. Adults 
spawn outside the Park, thus the larval supply may be susceptible to considerable 
mortality prior to migrating into the Park. They are less vulnerable to the gear because 
they are relatively well developed, and they may not be available to standard 
ichthyoplankton gear due to preference for the poorly sampled microhabitats (e.g., 
crevices, the bottom and channel edges). Step-oblique tows with standard 
ichthyoplankton gear was appropriate for sampling early stage trout larvae to 
determine the spatial and temporal distribution of spawning. The development of 
different gear may be required to study the late larval and early juvenile stage. 
Although our research focused on the four target species we were able to gain an 
insight into the distribution and abundance of non-gamefish within Florida Bay and 
adjacent waters. One of the most striking patterns was the dominance by and ubiquitous 
distribution of gobiid larvae. 

1984 - 1985 

Powell, A. B., D. E. Hoss, W. F. Hettler, D. S. Peters, and S. Wagner (1989) Abundance and 
distribution of ichthyoplankton in Florida Bay and adjacent waters. Symp. on Florida Bay: A 
Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1):35-48. 

This ichthyoplankton survey in Florida Bay and adjacent waters focused on the 
abundance and distribution of larvae of four species: red drum (Sciaenops ocellata), 
snook (Centropomus undecimalis), gray snapper (Lutjanus griseus) and spotted seatrout 
(Cynoscion nebulosus). Spotted seatrout was the only target species whose larvae were 
regularly collected. The data indicated that this species spawned in intermediate to high 


288 



salinity waters within western Florida Bay and adjacent estuarine waters, but not in 
brackish waters. No spotted seatrout larvae were collected in the Keys area. Ten 
sampling trips were made from March 1984 to September 1985. Larvae were collected 
in all months except November. All snapper larvae were found in the Atlantic Ocean, 
but juveniles were found both in Florida Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. Gray snapper 
appeared to spawn near offshore reefs, during the summer, in the Atlantic Ocean and at 
least some entered the Bay as advanced larvae or juveniles. One of the most striking 
patterns of this survey was the dominance and ubiquitous distribution of gobiid larvae. 

1984 - 1985 

Sogard, S. M., G. V. N. Powell, and J. G. Holmquist (1989) Utilization by fishes of shallow, 
seagrass-covered banks in Florida Bay: 1. Species composition and spatial heterogeneity. 
Environ. Biol. Fishes . 24(l):53-65. 

Species composition and relative capture rates of water column fishes occurring on the 
shallow (<1 m), seagrass-covered mudbanks of Florida Bay were assessed using small- 
mesh gill nets. The fauna was largely temperate, with few tropical representatives, 
and was similar to the fish community of the adjacent basins. There was high 
variability in the catch across the Bay, reflecting heterogeneity in both the physical 
environment and various aspects of the seagrass canopy. The Gulf site, in the 
northwest section of the Bay, had the highest species richness and highest capture 
rates of individual species, relative to other sites. Higher densities of potential prey, 
greater available foraging area, and organically rich, fine sediments are probably 
influencial in the greater fish utilization of the bank. The greater exchange of western 
Florida Bay with open Atlantic or Gulf waters is proposed as a secondary factor 
influencing species richness; the probability of non-resident species occasionally 
appearing on western banks is greater than in isolated interior sections of the Bay. 

1984 - 1985 

Sogard, S. M., G. V. N. Powell, and J. G. Holmquist (1989) Utilization by fishes of shallow, 
seagrass-covered banks in Florida Bay: 2. Diel and tidal patterns. Environ. Biol. Fishes . 
24(2):81 -92. 

Diel and tidal patterns in the occurrence of water column fishes were examined on four 
shallow banks in Florida Bay, using continuous 72 h gillnet sets. Nets were set on the 
edge of a mudbank and remained in place 72 h. The fish were removed from the net 
every half hour. Banks were sampled during five series over a two-yr period (March, 
July and November, 1984; and March and July, 1985). Patterns in capture rates were 
presumed to indicate movement of fishes on and off the seagrass-covered banks. 
Species that were nocturnally active on the banks included Arius felis, Mugil gyrans, 
Opisthonema oglinum, Harengula jaguana, Elops saurus, Lutjanus griseus, and Bairdiella 
chrysoura. Diurnal species included Eucinostomus gula, Lagodon rhomboides, and Mugil 
cephalus. Strongylura notata and Mugil curema showed no consistent patterns. At the 
two sites with significant tidal fluctuation in water level, different activity patterns on 
the bank relative to tidal stage were evident for several species. At extreme low tides, 
water column fishes apparently left the banks to avoid stranding. Cycles of fish 
utilization of the bank habitat are proposed to be related to both availability of prey 
(diel patterns) and water level (tidal patterns). These cycles in turn influence activity 
patterns of predators foraging on these fishes. 

1984 - 1985 

Sogard, S. M., G. V. N. Powell, and J. G. Holmquist (1987) Epibenthic fish communities on 
Florida Bay banks: relations with physical parameters and seagrass cover. Mar. Ecol. Proa. 
Ser. . 40:25-39. 


289 






Epibenthic fish communities residing in seagrass beds on shallow (< 0.5 m) mudbanks in 
Florida Bay were quantitatively sampled with a throw trap method. Sampling took place 
three times a year during 1984 to 1985. The overall average density of 11 fish m 2 
was substantially higher than most previously reported densities for seagrass habitats. 
Four sites, representing 4 different subenvironments of Florida Bay, differed widely in 
species composition and densities of individual species. Results of discriminant function 
analysis indicated that fish communities at the 4 sites were relatively distinct. Species 
composition at different sites may be the result of complex interactions between the 
deterministic influence of habitat quality and the stochastic influence of larval 
availability. Restricted water circulation, effected by the network of banks, and 
different sources of water mass exchange were proposed as constraints on larval 
availability. Differences in species richness and fish densities across individual banks 
corresponded to gradients in depth, sediment structure, detrital loads, and various 
measures of seagrass structural complexity. The greater physical stress on top of a 
bank appeared to limit species richness, while fish densities across individual banks 
were regulated by habitat gradients. Multiple regression analysis indicated that the 
standing crop of seagrasses and the accumulation of vegetation litter were important 
determinants of fish densities. Physical factors, such as depth and sediment structure, 
were also influential. 

1984 - 1985 

Sogard, S. M., G. V. N. Powell, and J. G. Holmquist (1989) Spatial distribution and trends in 

abundance of fishes residing in seagrass meadows on Florida Bay mudbanks. Symp. on 

Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1 ):179-99. 
Fishes inhabiting seagrass beds on shallow mudbanks in Florida Bay were sampled with 
throw traps, to capture the relatively sedentary, epibenthic species, and gillnets, to 
capture the more mobile species occupying the overlying water column. There was a 
strong heterogeneity in species composition and abundances of both components across 
different subenvironments of the Bay. The Interior section, characterized by a low tidal 
range and hypersaline conditions, harbored few epibenthic species relative to sites on 
the periphery of the Bay. Densities of Lucania parva. however, reached outstanding 
values, with a mean of 39 fish per m 2 at a West Interior site. Species richness of the 
water column component was also low in the Interior subenvironment, but a few 
species had high capture rates, despite salinities of up to 50 °/oo. Three years of 
sampling in the northeast subenvironment indicated a trend from estuarine to marine 
conditions in salinity regime, seagrass growth, and densities of epibenthic fishes. A 
conceptual model was developed to aid in understanding the potential role of various 
biotic and abiotic factors in structuring fish communities on the banks. The 
distinctiveness of different subenvironments suggests that physical factors of water 
circulation and salinity patterns play a more influential role in Florida Bay than in more 
congruous seagrass ecosystems. This paper described the 1984 and 1985 results of the 
study. The results from the first two years of the study can be found in Sogard et al. 
(1987) and Sogard et al. (1989). 

1984 - 1985 

Thayer, G. W., D. R. Colby and W. F. Hettler (1987) Utilization of the red mangrove prop 

root habitat by fishes in south Florida. Mar. Ecol. Proa. Ser. . 35:25-38. 

The inherent difficulty of sampling the red mangrove prop root habitat has impeded our 
understanding of the utilization of this habitat by fishes. A block net and rotenone 
method was developed and used to sample 2 sites in each of 4 regions in Everglades 
National Park. At each site a 3-mm mesh net was used to enclose 3 sides of a mangrove 
island while an onshore berm formed the fourth side. Samples collected from the 
mangrove prop root environment were compared with samples collected using a 2-boat 


290 




otter trawl in the immediately (8 to 10m) adjacent fringing seagrass habitat. The 
density and biomass of fish collected by the 2 gear were greater in the prop root 
habitat than in the adjacent fringing seagrass areas. There also were consistent 
differences in species composition between the 2 habitat types across all 4 geographic 
regions. Analysis of the stomach contents of gray snapper Lutjanus griseus suggested 
that smaller snapper tend to feed in the prop root habitat while larger snapper may 
forage out into adjacent areas to feed. The red mangrove prop root habitat is utilized by 
a wide variety of fish, and greater attention should be given to evaluating its 
contribution to fish production in south Florida and elsewhere. 

1984 - 1985 

Thayer, G. W., and A. J. Chester (1989) Distribution and abundance of fishes among basin 
and channel habitats in Florida Bay. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. 
June, 1987. BulL Mar. Sci.. 44(1 ):200-1 9. 

Surface and bottom trawls were used to sample fishes in basins and channels in the 
western half of Florida Bay during 1984 and 1985. These data were evaluated in 
conjunction with information on environmental parameters, including seagrasses, to 
identify fish-habitat associations. Florida Bay is utilized by a diverse fish assemblage 
dominated by juveniles and forage species. The western portion of our sampling area 
within Florida Bay, adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico, and channels within the Bay, 
consistently supported the highest diversity of fish. Channel areas generally displayed 
the highest overall standing crop and density of seagrasses. Basins in the eastern 
portion of the Bay were most diverse in terms of seagrass composition and exhibited 
the highest overall densities of Syringodium filiforme. Cluster analysis revealed two 
major station groups. One, characterized by fish species that occurred frequently and 
in large numbers, occurred primarily in channels and in western Florida Bay where 
mixtures of seagrasses were prevalent; a second, characterized by low fish densities, 
occurred in generally monotypic stands of Thalassia testudinum. Discriminant function 
analysis demonstrated that comparatively higher sediment organic contents, slightly 
shallower water, and abundant Halodule wrightii and Syringodium populations were 
important factors at stations belonging to the typically high density fish cluster. 

1984 - 1985 

Thayer, G. W., W. F. Hettler, A. J. Chester, D. R. Colby, and P. T. McElhaney (1987) 
Distribution and abundance of fish communities among selected estuarine and marine 
habitats in Everglades National Park. Rep. SFRC-87/02. South Florida Research Center, 
Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 166 pp. 

The overall objective of this juvenile study was to evaluate relative species abundance 
and size composition of fish communities among selected habitats in estuarine and 
marine waters of Everglades National Park and to provide descriptions of the habitats 
in which these fishes occurred. Particular emphasis was placed on spotted seatrout 
(Cynoscion nebulosus) and gray snapper ( Lutjanus griseus). The study was divided into 
two subobjectives: juvenile fish associated with open water habitats, and fish utilizing 
red mangrove prop root habitats. The study area was subdivided into five sampling 
strata that included Whitewater Bay - Coot Bay, channels in Florida Bay, and three open 
water areas between western and eastern Florida Bay. Random sampling was conducted 
within these strata as well as regular periodic sampling at several selected sites. 
Biological, physical and chemical data, fish, shrimp, crabs, vegetation and sediment 
were collected during 1984 and 1985. Coot Bay and eastern Whitewater Bay are 
characterized by low salinities and sediments with high organic content and generally 
low densities of Ruppia maritima and/or Halodule wrightii. Channel areas in Florida Bay 
generally display the highest overall standing crop and density of seagrasses composed 
of Thalassia testudinum, Syringodium filiforme and Halodule wrightii. The western 


291 



strata of Florida Bay adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico was the most diverse in terms of 
seagrass composition, particularly in the northern portion, and exhibits the highest 
overall densities of Syringodium. The central and eastern strata are dominated by 
monotypic stands of Thalassia with the sparsest seagrass densities occurring in the 
eastern area adjacent to the Florida Keys. Here the sediment veneer is the thinnest 
observed in our study area. Over 90 species of fish representing 43 families were 
collected during the study, and all species contributed to over 90% of the fish 
collected. Western Florida Bay and channels in Florida Bay consistently supported fish 
communities that were comprised of similar species and the highest densities relative 
to other study areas. On an areal basis, the average numerical abundance and standing 
crop values of fish we observed are similar to, but at the low end of, the range of 
several published reports of fishes in seagrass meadows. Cluster analysis 
demonstrated two obvious associations. One cluster was characterized by species that 
occurred frequently and in large numbers, and this grouping occurred primarily in 
channels and in northwestern Florida Bay where mixtures of Syringodium and Thalassia 
were prevalent. A second cluster was of low fish density stations that are generally in 
areas of sparse monotypic meadows of Thalassia. Juvenile gray snapper and spotted 
seatrout were collected regularly, but in small numbers, during the stratified sampling 
phase as well as at regular sampling at Joe Kemp Key and Bradley Key. Although gray 
snapper were collected in western Florida Bay, they were most abundant in channels in 
eastern Florida Bay. This distribution is coincident with our larval sampling which found 
larval snapper only in the vicinity of the Florida Keys. Juvenile spotted seatrout were 
collected primarily in northwestern Florida Bay, and primarily in areas with mixed 
seagrass meadows containing Syringodium. Larval seatrout also were collected in 
greatest abundance in the same area, possibly suggesting only limited geographic 
movement of juveniles after settlement out of the plankton. Discriminant function 
analyses of data from randomly sampled sites were employed in an attempt to identify 
those environmental characteristics most important in determining juvenile spotted 
seatrout and gray snapper habitat. High densities of Syringodium and high percentages 
of organic matter in the sediments were particularly diagnostic of spotted seatrout 
habitat, while Halodule and biomass were the most informative variables in describing 
gray snapper habitat, particularly when these seagrasses were present in channels. 
These discriminant functions were employed to classify Joe Kemp Key and Bradley Key 
collections as having occurred at target fish or non-target fish habitat. Target fish 
were collected on all occasions at Joe Kemp Key and Bradley Key. The discriminant 
functions developed from our stratified random sampling phase of the study classified 
the sampling locations at Joe Kemp Key and Bradley Key as target fish habitat on all but 
one occasion. Data are also presented on the food habits of juvenile gray snapper and 
spotted seatrout, and on the distribution of spiny lobsters, blue and ornate crabs, and a 
penaeid shrimp based on otter trawl collections at the randomly sampled sites. Food 
habit data was similar to published accounts for similar size fish. There appeared to be 
distinct distribution patterns of lobsters, crabs, and shrimp. The red mangrove prop 
roots of Whitewater Bay, Coot Bay and Florida Bay provides extensive habitat that 
heretofore has not been evaluated quantitatively for fishes. A technique was developed 
and tested to sample these habitats quantitatively. Fishes collected from this habitat 
type were compared with fishes collected by trawl from the immediately adjacent 
seagrass habitat. The mangrove prop root habitat supported an overall greater density 
and standing crop of fish. Several of the species utilizing the prop root habitat are of 
commercial and recreational importance (e.g., mullet and gray snapper), while many 
are forage foods for predatory fishes. This phase of the study demonstrated that the 
red mangrove prop root habitat is utilized by a wide variety of fish, and that greater 
attention should be given to evaluating it as a refuge and a source of food resources for 
fishes in Everglades National Park. 


292 


1984 - 1986 

Holmquist, J. G., G. V. N. Powell, and S. M. Sogard (1989) Decapod and stomatopod 
communities of seagrass-covered mud banks in Florida Bay: inter- and intra-bank 
heterogeneity with special reference to isolated subenvironments. Symp. on Florida Bay: A 
Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1 ):251-62. 

The decapod and stomatopod fauna of the grass covered mudbanks in five major 
subenvironments of Florida Bay were sampled using throw traps, and the collected 
specimens tested for zonation in these fauna across individual banks. The sampling sites 
were the same as those of Holmquist et al. (1989). Samples were collected three times 
a year in accordance with the ecologically distinct periods of the Bay : December - 
April, May - August, and September - November). The East Central (Cross Bank), 
Atlantic (Buchanan Bank) and Gulf (Dave Foy Bank) subenvironments were sampled 
during 1984 - 1985; the East Interior (bank adjacent to Coon Key) and West Interior 
(between Roscoe and Dump Keys) during 1986; and the Northeast (Eagle Key Bank) 
during 1984 - 1986. The vegetation in these locations was described by Zieman et al. 
(1989) and the decapod and stomatopod communities by Holmquist et al. (1989). Fauna 
was primarily Gulf-Carolinean, despite the presence of a rich Antillean community just 
outside the bay. The two subenvironments adjacent to open ocean had high species 
richness, but banks became increasingly depauperate toward the interior of the bay, 
with the innermost study site supporting a virtual monoculture of the grass shrimp 
Thor floridanus. Species richness was similar across bank tops and exposed and 
sheltered sides. For the majority of species and sites, the exposed sides had the lowest 
abundance of the three transects. Restricted circulation may limit larval recruitment to 
inner portions of the bay, particularly for those species whose adult populations within 
the bay frequently fell to virtually nil, and that physical parameters, especially 
salinity, partially mediate the community structure of organisms that do gain access to 
the Bay's isolated areas. 

1984 - 1986 

Holmquist, J. G., G. V. N. Powell, and S. M. Sogard (1989) Sediment, water level and water 
temperature characteristics in Florida Bay's grass-covered mud banks. Symp. on Florida 
Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar, Sci. . 44(1 ):348-64. 

Florida Bay is a shallow lagoonal estuary divided into basins by a latticework of 
mudbanks, which exert a disproportionate influence on the bay ecosystem. The East 
Central (Cross Bank), Atlantic (Buchanan Bank) and Gulf (Dave Foy Bank) 
subenvironments were sampled during 1984 - 1985; the East Interior (bank adjacent to 
Coon Key) and West Interior (between Roscoe and Dump Keys) during 1986; and the 
Northeast (Eagle Key Bank) during 1984 - 1986. The vegetation in these locations was 
described by Zieman et al. (1989) and the decapod and stomatopod communities by 
Holmquist et al. (1989). Prevailing northeasterly winds resulted in distinct sheltered 
and exposed sides on narrow banks, the former with fine sediment and a high organic 
content and the high energy exposed sides with coarser sediment and low organic 
content. Bank water levels were highest in fall. Lunar tidal flux appeared to be directly 
related to the degree of access to open ocean for any given site. Water levels also 
demonstrated some degree of wind-dependency at all sites. Although water levels on 
narrow banks were highly correlated with those of basins, one 2-km-wide bank 
retained a lens of water at low tide despite lower levels in adjacent basins. Bank 
temperatures ranged from 7.5°C to 37.0°C and demonstrated a mean daily range of 
4.5°C, but up to 15°C, in contrast to basin ranges of 1 to 2°C. Temperature range was 
a function of air temperature range and water level. September through November was 
the most benign period on the banks. A bank in the northeastern bay was the physically 
severest of our six study sites. We discuss implications of the physical scenario for 


293 




bank organisms; in general, banks should represent a more stressful habitat than 
deeper grass beds. 

1984 - 1986 

Powell, G. V. N., S. M. Sogard, and J. G. Holmquist (1987) Ecology of shallow water bank 
habitats in Florida bay. Final rep. contract CX5280-3-2339. South Florida Research Center, 
Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 405 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This study was 
designed to describe the physical environment of Florida Bay's bank habitats, including 
topography, tidal flux, wind direction and velocity, temperature and salinity regimes, 
sediment characteristics, and seasonal variations of the above. In addition, the 
distribution and abundance of fishes and decapod crustaceans and variation in seagrass 
growth on banks was determined. The effects of seagrass parameters and variations in 
physical parameters on species composition and density was determined. The effects of 
nutrients on seagrass parameters, fish and invertebrates was presented. Results 
indicated that bank seagrass communities were affected to a greater degree than 
submerged systems. Standing crop of seagrasses was the most important biotic factor 
influencing fish and decapod densities. Water level and wind stress had a major impact 
on the shallow banks. Seagrass, demersal fish, pelagic fish, and decapod populations on 
the banks varied in a consistent manner across the bay. Seagrass cover on banks 
allowed species to survive during periods of extreme physical stress and insured a 
source of prey for fish and birds. 


1985 

Bosence, D. (1989) Biogenic carbonate production in Florida Bay. Symp. on Florida Bay: A 

Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1 ):419-33. 

This paper reviews previous work on biogenic carbonate production within Florida Bay 
and presents new data from a 1985 survey on production from the Upper Cross Bank 
and Buchanan Key areas. Production figures for bank and lake environments were 
calculated from standing crop surveys and growth rates determined from published 
work and short-term growth measurements. The organisms studied were: Porites, 
Thalassia, epibionts, mollusks, Penicillus, soritid foraminifera and Halimeda listed in 
order of decreasing carbonate productivity. Production figures indicate that banks 
produced twice as much skeletal carbonate per unit area as lakes. However lakes were 
much larger than banks and, within the study areas, lakes generated about four times 
the amount of sediment as that formed on banks. This excess sediment was considered 
to have been transported to the southwest of the Bay to areas with larger 
constructional banks or out of the Florida Bay system. The migrating Upper Cross Bank 
generated sediment at rates nearly one order of magnitude less than those of the more 
stable Buchanan bank and the back-reef mound of Tavernier. Production rates may 
therefore be effecting bank stability. 


1985 

Bosence, D. (1989) Carbonate budgets for carbonate mounds Florida, USA. Proc., 6th Coral 
Reef Symposium, Townsville, Australia. Vol. 2. 529-34. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] Carbonate 
production rates are compared with sediment volumes for shallow water mounds in 
Florida Bay along a transect from the back-reef Tavernier mound to Buchanan Bank in 
outer Florida Bay to Upper Cross Bank, inner Florida Bay. Production rates are 
established from standing crop and growth rate data. Production rates decrease by 
orders of magnitude from reef to back-reef and outer-bay mounds and from outer to 
inner-bay mounds. Intermound production is less than mound production but represents 
90% of the inner-bay area and therefore contributes more sediment to the region than 


294 



the mounds. It was found that the inner-bay has import mounds, the outer-bay has 
export mounds and that probably there is large-scale sediment transport out of the bay 
to account for overproduction of biogenic carbonate since it was flooded some 3700 yr 
ago. 


1985 0 

Dzou, l-P. L. (1985) In-situ and pyrolytic hydrocarbons in carbonate sediments from 

Florida Bay. M. S. Thesis. University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX. 109 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.) In the northern portion of Florida 
Bay, the sediments contain an average of 1.3% organic carbon and the bitumen content 
ranges from 230 to 310 pig/g, and averages 268 pg/g. In the more open southern and 
western portions, the sediments have 1% average organic carbon, and the bitumen 
content ranges from 270 to 360 pg/g and averages 360 pg/g. Hydrocarbons analyses 
were obtained on the bitumen extract of the organic matter from 28 core samples from 
Florida Bay. Column and gas chromatography were used to characterize the C 15 + 
fraction of the normal hydrocarbons. The distribution of the C 15+ normal paraffins in 
the northern portion of the Bay shows a bimodal distribution, with maxima at C 27 or 
C 29 and C 18 , and a marked predominance of odd- over even-carbon-number molecules 
in the C 23 to C 31 range. This distribution is characteristic of marine and land-plant 
sources of hydrocarbons. In contrast, the C 15+ normal hydrocarbons in the southern 
and western portions show a different bimodal distribution of n-alkanes, with maxima 
at C 17 or C 18 and C 23 or C 24 ; n-alkanes greater than C 25 with an odd-carbon-number 
predominance are essentially absent, indicating dominantly marine organisms as a 
major source of hydrocarbons. Anhydrous and hydrous pyrolysis of the modern 
carbonate sediments at 250°C for three days produced new hydrocarbons. The new 
hydrocarbon distributions resemble those typical of Upper Cretaceous carbonate rock 
extracts in South Florida and Silurian Salina-Al carbonate rock extracts in the 
Michigan Basin. A special feature observed in these hydrocarbon distributions is the 
even predominance of n-alkanes. The pattern is attributed to reduction of even carbon- 
numbered parent molecules (fatty acids and alcohols) in strongly reducing and 
hydrogenating sediments during laboratory pyrolysis and natural maturation. 


1985 

Heatwole, D. W., J. H. Hunt, and F. S. Kennedy (1988) Catch efficiencies of live lobster 
decoys and other attractants in the Florida spiny lobster fishery. Fla. Mar. Res. PubL 
0(44): 1-1 5. 

Studies reported in this paper are among several conducted by the Florida Department 
of Natural Resources to evaluate the efficacy of measures proposed to minimize or 
eliminate losses due to present fishery practices. Proposed measures include 
mandatory use of live wells to curtail exposure of lobsters to air and escape gaps to 
permit undersize lobsters to avoid capture in traps. To mitigate effects of regulatory 
measures which would decrease or eliminate use of shorts as bait and thereby reduce 
catch efficiency under present fishery conditions, testing was conducted to evaluate 
baiting alternatives. The present study was conducted near Marathon, to compare catch 
efficiency of shorts with three other conventional lobster baits, two artificially 
produced attractants, and unbaited traps. All baits were tested in both the Atlantic 
Ocean and Florida Bay to address the contention of fishermen that shorts are more 
effective attractants in the bay than in the ocean. 


1985 0 

Holliday, V. E. (1985) Mechanisms of deposition of a carbonate mud spit; Ramshorn Spit, 
eastern Florida Bay. M. S. Thesis. Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA. 


295 



In this report four sediment types based on particle size distribution, organic content, 
and faunal assemblages are described from core samples taken at Ramshorn Spit, 
eastern Florida Bay. The basic types were: (1) very thin discontinuous shelly 
packstones, representing storm deposits; (2) thin continuous basal shelly packstones, 
the initial marine deposit on bedrock; (3) muddy wackstones, of variable thickness, 
deposited in the presence of seagrass; and (4) very thick, fairly laminated fine 
mudstones, with very sparse fauna, representing transported sediments out of 
suspension. These classifications were confirmed by discriminant analysis which 
showed that these sediment layers were correctable between cores, indicating a 
change in stratigraphy southwestward from the spit and bank junction. The author 
concludes that Ramshorn Spit, throughout its depositional history, seems to have been 
accreting outward into the surrounding 'lake' by means of a current-transported mud 
fraction; sediments are subsequently stabilized by turtle grass cover. 


1985 0 

Holliday, V. E., and J. M. Parks (1985) Mechanisms of deposition of a carbonate mud spit; 

Ramshorn Spit, eastern Florida Bay. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. . 69:266. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The turtle 
grass (Thalassia testudinum) community has a significant influence on sedimentation in 
Florida Bay, but the roles other processes may play in the buildup of mudbank and spit 
sediments are poorly understood. Samples from cores taken from Ramshorn Spit and 
Ramshorn Shoal were classified into 4 basic types on the basis of particle size 
distribution, organic content, and faunal assemblages. In order of increasing volumetric 
importance they are: (1) very thin, discontinuous shelly packstones, representing 
overbank or storm deposits; (2) thin, continuous basal shelly packstones, the initial 
marine deposit on the Pleistocene bedrock surface; (3) muddy wackestones, of variable 
thickness, deposited in the presence of a seagrass community; and (4) very thick, 
faintly laminated fine mudstones, with very sparse fauna, representing weak current- 
transported sediments settling out of suspension. Discriminate function analysis 
confirms the classifications and shows that these sediment layers are indeed 
correctable between cores. Interpretation of the core logs from Ramshorn Spit 
indicates a definite change in stratigraphy southwestward from the spit and bank 
junction to the tip of the spit itself. The different sediment layers show a small but 
significant inclination to the southwest. Throughout its depositional history, Ramshorn 
Spit seems to have been actively accreting outward into the surrounding 'lake' by 
means of a current-transported fine mud fraction. After settling out at the growing tip 
of the spit, the sediments are subsequently stabilized at some later time by a turtle- 
grass cover. 


1985 

Kieber, D. J., and K. Mopper (1987) Photochemical formation of glyoxylic and pyruvic 
acids in seawater. Mar. Chem. . 21:135-49. 

Glyoxylic and pyruvic acids were formed when filter-sterilized seawater was exposed 
to solar radiation. Samples were collected in 1985. Production rates varied from 
samples collected from distinctly different regions of the sea. Humic-rich seawater 
from Florida Bay exhibited net photochemical production rates (glyoxylate, 27.5 nM W- 
h' 1 nr 2 ; pyruvate, 12.9 nM W-h' 1 m' 2 ) that were significantly greater than net 
production rates for humic-poor water (glyoxylate, 3.1 nM W-h' 1 nr 2 ; pyruvate, 1.8 
nM W-h' 1 m' 2 ) collected in the Gulf Stream. When seawater was not filtered, the 
concentrations of glyoxylate and pyruvate were found to undergo diurnal variations 
resulting from an imbalance between biological and photochemical processes. A depth 
profile of the glyoxylate concentration from several oceanic stations showed a 
pronounced daytime maximum in the upper 10 m; this finding is consistent with 


296 




laboratory results that demonstrated that glyoxylate is formed photochemically in 
seawater. Pyruvate, in contrast, showed no clear trend with depth; its distribution in 
the water column may be primarily controlled by biological processes rather than by 
photochemical processes. Biological processes are generally thought to control the 
spatial and temporal distribution of simple organic metabolites in seawater. Our results 
show that photochemical processes may also be important in the marine cycling of some 
biochemical compounds. 


1985 

King, C. A. (1987) Organochlorines in bottlenose dolphins, (Tursiops truncatus) and Pygmy 

sperm whales (Kogia breviceps) from southeastern Florida. M. S. Thesis, University of 

Miami, Coral Gables, Fla. 92 pp. 

Organochlorine concentrations in melon tissue from Atlantic bottlenose dolphins 
(Tursiops truncatus) and pygmy sperm whales (Kogia breviceps) were determined to 
test the hypotheses that there are intraspecific differences in concentrations in 
relation to body length and sex, and that there are interspecific differences related to 
distribution and diet. Melon samples from 15 bottlenose dolphins and 18 pygmy sperm 
whales stranded in southeastern Florida were analyzed for chlorinated pesticides and 
PCBs using a modified version of the standard EPA method. One specimen each of these 
two species was found in Florida Bay. These two species were chosen for study because 
of their frequency of stranding, and differences in their distribution and feeding habits. 
PCB (Aroclor 1254), heptachlor epoxide, 4,4'-DDT, and 4,4'-DDE were detected in all 
melon samples; heptachlor, dieldrin, 4,4'-DDD, 2,4'-DDT, 2,4'-DDE, and lindane were 
detected infrequently. In both bottlenose dolphins and pygmy sperm whales, 
concentrations of PCB and chlorinated pesticides were significantly higher in males than 
in females. There was no significant correlation between body length (as a measure of 
age) and organochlorine concentrations Results demonstrated that bottlenose dolphins 
had significantly higher concentrations of chlorinated pesticides and PCB than pygmy 
sperm whales, as predicted by distribution and diet. When compared to levels of PCBs 
and DDT previously reported in odontocetes, concentrations of DDT in pygmy sperm 
whales and bottlenose dolphins in the present study are within the low range of global 
contamination. Concentrations of PCB in pygmy sperm whales are also within the low 
range of global contamination of odontocetes, while bottlenose dolphins, particularly 
males, had concentrations of PCB within the high range. Information from the present 
study can be applied as baseline data in the future monitoring of organochlorine 
concentrations in bottlenose dolphins from southeastern Florida. Continued monitoring is 
suggested since the future management of these dolphins should take into account the 
impact of contamination by organochlorines, especially PCB's. 


1985 0 

Quinn, T. M., and D. F. Merriam (1985) Florida Bay revisited: development of a shallow- 
water carbonate facies mosaic in response to Holocene transgression. Geol. Soc. Amer. 
Abj^, 17:694. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] A complex 
shallow-water carbonate facies mosaic has developed in Florida Bay in response to the 
Holocene transgression. This complex facies mosaic is incorporated in the sedimentary 
record of most Florida Bay islands and consists, in upward succession, of: (1) a 
freshwater low-Mg calcite mud facies; (2) a transgressive basal peat facies; (3); 
packstone and wackestone facies; (4) an organic-rich skeletal and pelletoidal 
wackestone facies; (5) an intercalated upper peat facies; and (6) a supratidal mudstone 
and wackestone facies. Detailed sediment analyses have revealed that facies 3, 4, and 
5 are absent from portions of numerous Florida Bay islands. Islands whose sedimentary 
records consist of the supratidal mudstone and wackestone facies (6) directly 


297 




overlying the basal peat facies (2) are interpreted to have initiated from a coastal tidal 
flat that developed overlying a paralic peat. Furthermore, while there is evidence that 
mudbank sediments are an important component of some Florida Bay islands, we believe 
that the majority of islands initiate and nucleate from coastal supratidal flats. Data 
generated from 14 C analyses of sediments from the basal peat facies (2) have been 
combined with existing 14 C data to form an integrated 14 C database for South Florida 
peats. An updated Holocene sea level curve based on this database indicates a rise in 
sea level at 1.9 mm yr 1 from -5.6 m to -1 m (5400 to 3000 yr BP). The rate of sea 
level rise slowed considerably so that between -1 m and present mean sealevel (3000 
yr BP to the present), South Florida has been inundated at a rate of 0.3 mm yr' 1 . 


1985 0 

Seaman, W. J. (ed.) (1985) Florida aquatic habitat and fishery resources. Fla. Chap. Amer. 

Fish. Soc., Kissimmee, FL. 543 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] This book 
summarizes and reviews over 1000 technical articles on the latest fishery and habitat- 
related scientific information of lakes, rivers, coastal marshes, mangrove forests, 
bays, and oceanic systems of Florida. Florida Bay and the Ten Thousand Islands, located 
within the boundaries of the Everglades National Park, are discussed as major 
estuarine-lagoon systems. Conclusions are presented concerning Florida's major 
coastal and offshore fisheries which are dependent upon species related to nursery 
areas in estuaries and nearshore areas. 


1985 0 

Sengupta, S., and D. F. Merriam (1985) Definition of major sub-environments in Florida 
Bay. Geol. Sqc, A me r . A bstr.. 17(7):712. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The 
environment in Florida Bay is influenced by the freshwater run off from the 
Everglades, ground water seeping through the Pleistocene "basement rocks", rainfall, 
and marine waters from the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. The relation of water 
properties such as salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen, dissolved carbon dioxide, turbidity, 
calcium, and magnesium along with sedimentological, geochemical, and biological 
properties of the recent sediments collected in Florida Bay were used to determine the 
subenvironments. Statistical data analysis of these spatial data reveals that (a) salinity 
increases from brackish to marine towards center of Bay, (b) pH is normal marine 
towards center of Bay, and it increases toward the mainland and keys, (c) dissolved 
oxygen decreases toward the center of the Bay, and (d) dissolved carbon dioxide 
increases towards the center of the Bay. The statistical analysis allows definition of 
four subenvironments which show a distinct change in orientation from winter to 
summer. These changes are attributed to wind direction, nutrient supply, rainfall, 
water circulation, and basin configuration. Geochemical analyses indicate that the 
waters of Florida Bay are supersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate. Inorganic 
precipitation can occur in certain regions of the Bay, particularly in the northern 
subenvironment. X-ray diffraction studies indicate no evidence for diagenesis in the 
mineralogy of the sediments. 


1985 0 

Sorensen, C. E., and D. F. Merriam (1985) Geochemical and grain-size distribution in three 
basins in Florida Bay. Geol. Soc. Amer, Abs. . 17(3): 19. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Sediment and 
water samples were collected in three basins (lakes) of Florida Bay to determine 
whether biological or physical processes control sediment grain size. The three basins 
were selected because of their similar size and their location in different parts of the 


298 




Bay reflecting different environments. In addition to the grain-size analysis, the 
sediments were analyzed for weight percent of Ca, Mg, Ti, Si, Al, Sr, Fe, and K using 
x-ray fluorescent spectrometry. Water samples were analyzed in situ for pH, 
temperature, dissolved oxygen, dissolved carbon dioxide, salinity, and turbidity by a 
portable chemical analysis kit. Populations of benthonic organisms were estimated at all 
45 sampling stations spread through the three basins. X-ray diffractometry determined 
mineralogical content of each sediment sample. Means, standard deviations, and 
correlation coefficients were calculated to elucidate the relationships between the 
different components. Interpretation of the results obtained from the measured 
parameters indicate that physical processes control the grain-size distribution in Shell 
Key and Crab Key Basins, but biological processes control the grain-size distribution in 
the northernmost basin, Madeira Bay. The average strontium concentration of the 
sediments in all three basins inferred molluscan origin, instead of the expected algal 
origin. Chemical conditions above the sediment-water interface were not favorable for 
inorganic physiochemical precipitation of calcium carbonate at the time the 
measurements were taken. The expected significant negative correlation between 
Thalassia testudinum density and the percentage of coarse grains was recognized in 
only one basin. [This may be based on the same data used in Sorensen (1985).] 


1 985 

Swart, P. K., D. Berler, D. McNeill, M. Guzikowski, S. A. Harrison, and E. Dedick (1989) 
Interstitial water geochemistry and carbonate diagenesis in the sub-surface of a Holocene 
mud island in Florida Bay. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 
1987. Bull. Mar. ScL 44(1 ):490-514. 

Diagenetic reactions occurring in the sub-surface of an exposed Holocene island in 
Florida Bay were investigated in a core taken on Crane Key. Interstitial waters 
squeezed from the sediments at 10-cm intervals were filtered and analyzed for Ca, 
Mg, Cl, Sr, S and stable isotopic (C and O) compositions. Alkalinity, pH, salinity and 
sulfate concentrations were also determined. Mineralogy of the bulk sediments was also 
determined. These data were compared with the mineralogy, Sr concentration and 
carbon and oxygen isotopes of the bulk sample and isolated dolomite. Salinities 
throughout the core were in excess of 80 g kg* 1 . To eliminate effects of evaporation 
pore water data were normalized to the concentration of chloride. These data indicate 
that while Ca 2+ /CI\ Mg 2+ / Cl* and Sr 2+ /CI* ratios all increase downcore, Mg 2+ /Ca 2 + 
and Sr 2+ /Ca 2+ ratios exhibit a decrease in certain intervals which we believe is 
attributable to the dissolution of high magnesium calcite and perhaps the precipitation of 
dolomite. These findings are supported by the discovery of dolomite with a 14 C age 
some 2,000 yrs younger than the host sediment. The flux of magnesium, calculated 
from the present day gradient, indicates that more than enough Mg 2+ has been available 
from the dissolution of high magnesium calcite to account for the observed dolomite. 
The dolomites which were analyzed in this investigation did not form 
contemporaneously with deposition, but rather at some time between 2,600 BP and the 
present day. These conclusions are supported by stable carbon and oxygen isotopic data 
and calculation of the saturation state of relevant carbonate minerals. 


1985 0 

Thayer, G. W., W. F. Hettler, and D. W. Peters (1985) Utilization of the red mangrove prop 
root habitat by fishes in South Florida. Estuaries , 8(2B):104A. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Mangroves 
dominate the shorelines of South Florida, constituting about 4 x 10 5 acres of estuarine 
and coastal habitat. Studies have described the composition of fishes utilizing 
mangrove-fringed bays and lagoons, but, to our knowledge, none have evaluated the use 
of the fringing red mangrove prop root habitat by juvenile and adult fish. We sampled 


299 




permanent stations for more than one year in Whitewater Bay, Coot Bay and in Florida 
Bay adjacent to Flamingo on the north coast and Plantation Key on the south coast to 
evaluate the variability in composition and abundance of fish among mangrove areas. 
Block nets and rotenone were used to sample the intertidal fringing habitat, and two- 
boat otter trawls were employed to sample the adjacent seagrass areas to compare 
species composition. Stomach contents of some fish species from both habitats also 
were evaluated. In addition, such structural characteristics as prop root and seagrass 
density and sediment particle size and organic content were measured. Our data 
indicate that fringing red mangrove prop root habitats in Everglades National Park are 
utilized by juvenile and adult fish. 


1985 0 

Thayer, G. W., D. E. Ross and D. W. Peters (1985) Habitat utilization by young-of-the-year 
fishes in the Everglades National Park. Estuaries . 8(2B):33A. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] In cooperation with the National 
Park Service, the Southeast Fisheries Center, Beaufort Laboratory initiated a research 
program to examine habitat utilization during the early life history of four species of 
fish (red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus ; spotted seatrout, Cynoscion nebulosus ; snook, 
Centropomus undecimas; and mangrove snapper, Lutjanius griseus) that are important 
to the sport fishery in the Everglades National Park. The long-term goal of this 
research is for ENP to understand the causes of variation in abundance and distribution 
of these fishes. The emphasis is on life history stages, habitats, ecological processes 
and environmental factors that are believed to be related to abundance. Specific 
objectives are to: (1) determine the relative abundance timing and location where 
larval fishes enter the Park and (2) evaluate the relative abundance and composition of 
juvenile fish communities among habitat in the Park and develop descriptions of habitats 
in which fish occur. Major habitats being examined are (1) coastal spawning areas, (2) 
migration routes, (3) seagrass meadows, and (4) intertidal mangroves. 

1985, 1987 

Fuhr, J. M. (1988) Stratigraphy and depositional history of the Pleistocene bedrock 
underlying Florida Bay. M. S. Thesis. Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX. 
132 pp. 

Ten cores from Florida Bay reveal new information concerning Pleistocene sedimentary 
units deposited in South Florida. Using R. D. Perkins ’Q-unit" classification proposed in 
1977, four units (Q1 through Q4) were recognized. A Q5 unit was not observed. Units 
older than Pleistocene were penetrated in several cores. Contoured maps show several 
paleotopographic features that influenced Pleistocene sedimentation. The Cape Sable and 
South Florida Highs were draped with elastics eroded from the mainland. The 
Pleistocene shelf edge and an open marine-platform are also discernible. Q2 time 
marked a switch from clastic sedimentation to in situ carbonate production. In Q3 time 
a barrier reef began growing at the Pleistocene shelf edge, with patch reefs growing in 
the back-reef area. A peloidal unit, the bryozoan facies of the Miami Limestone, was 
deposited in the lagoonal back-reef area during Q4 time. This deposit comprises the 
upmost Pleistocene bedrock immediately underlying Florida Bay. The cores were taken 
from Ninemile Bank, Twin Key, Russell Key, Park Key, Nest Key, Black Betsy Key, 
Crane Key, East Key, Cotton Key and Windley Key. 

1985, 1988 

Textoris, S. D. (1988) Stratigraphy and depositional history of Late Pleistocene Key Largo 
patch reefs underlying Florida Bay. M. S. Thesis, Wichita State Univ., Wichita, KS. 165 pp. 
This study was conducted in Florida Bay utilizing twenty cores of Pleistocene bedrock 
which were taken up to 70 ft in depth. Based on a classification scheme developed by 


300 



Perkins, four marine-deposited units (Q1 through Q4) were recognized in Upper 
Pleistocene rocks underlying the Bay. Differentiation between units was based upon the 
recognition of unconformities and subaerial features associated with sealevel 
lowstands. Antecedent topography affected Pleistocene sedimentation. Contour maps of 
each unit depict the topography, thickness, lithofacies, and paleoenvironment during the 
time of deposition. Configuration maps reveal the Cape Sable and South Florida Highs 
were covered with siliciclastics eroded from the mainland. The Pleistocene shelf-edge 
and an open-marine platform were among the major factors influencing sedimentation in 
South Florida and Florida Bay during Q1 time. Sealevel transgression during Q2 time 
resulted, in part, in a transition from clastic sedimentation to in situ carbonate 
production and deposition. In Q3 time a barrier reef grew on the Pleistocene shelf-edge. 
A lagoonal back-reef area (Florida Bay) developed leeward of the barrier. Cores reveal 
that reef mounds, and patch reefs in the back-reef, did not begin to flourish until the 
beginning of Q3 time. Fluctuation in sealevel greatly affected facies deposition and patch 
reef growth during Q3 a Q4 time. East Key patch reef initiated growth from a Q3 reef 
mound subsequent to a minor sealevel drop; subaerial exposure of the reef at the end of 
Q3 time resulted in the death of the reef. Lignumvitae Key patch reef growth probably 
was initiated in Q3 time and, similar to the barrier reef, continued growth throughout 
Q4 time. 

1985 - 1987 

Schropp, S. J., F. G. Lewis, H. L. Windom, J. D. Ryan, F. D. Calder, and L. C. Burney (1990) 

Interpretation of metal concentrations in estuarine sediments of Florida using aluminum as a 

reference element. Estuaries . 13(3):227-35. 

Metal contamination of estuarine sediments is an increasing problem in Florida and 
elsewhere as urbanization extends into previously undeveloped areas. Effective 
estuarine management practices require scientifically valid tools to assess the extent 
of estuarine contamination. Interpretation of anthropogenic metal contributions has been 
hampered by the fact that natural metal concentrations in sediments vary by orders of 
magnitude in different sediments. Normalization of metal concentrations to a reference 
element, Al, appears to be a promising method for comparing estuarine sediment metal 
concentrations on a regional basis. This paper describes an interpretive method based 
on the relationship between sediment metals and Al derived from statewide data on 
natural estuarine sediments in Florida. Data from the Miami River and Biscayne Bay 
were used to demonstrate the interpretative method. Sediment samples were collected 
from 1985 to 1987 from 28 coastal sites and analyzed for Al, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, 
Hg, and Pb. Analytical methods and quality assurance protocols are described in the 
paper. 

1985 - 1987 

Bosence, D. (1989) Surface sublittoral sediments of Florida Bay. Symp. on Florida Bay: A 

Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1 ):434-53. 

Results of detailed analysis of sediments from the restricted Cross Banks area and the 
more open marine Buchanan Keys area are discussed as well as previous work. 
Sediments of the Cross Banks area were composed principally of mollusk and 
foraminifera grains with a pelleted, silt-sized matrix. Textures on the banks varied 
from windward mud-pebble-conglomerates, packstones and grainstones to bank-top 
leeward, and lake, wackestones and mudstones. The latter was deposited in patchy to 
dense seagrass beds. Sediments of the Buchanan Banks area comprised grains of 
Halimeda, coral and lithoclasts in addition to mollusk and foraminifera grains. Windward 
facies were packstones, grainstones and some Porites framestones. Bank top and 
leeward margins accumulated peloidal mudstones and wackestones under seagrass 
cover. Lake floors were bare but have a thin packstone covering. In both areas, facies 


301 




consistently occurred as bands paralleling the bank margins. Sedimentary structures, 
textures, seagrass rhizome depths and measurements of changes in bank morphology all 
indicated windward erosion and leeward deposition of mound sediment. This supported 
the hypotheses of down-wind bank migration, and suggested that this occurs in normal 
but sporadic weather conditions. When surface sediment composition and benthic 
communities were compared regionally within south Florida, they showed a trend of 
reducing diversity from the reef tract through to central Florida Bay. Sediment 
textures varied locally with windward and leeward environments. This work was based 
on studies of aerial photographs and a series of measurements from 1985 through 1987 
along two transects in Upper Cross Bank. 

1985 - 1988 

Bowman, R., and G. T. Bancroft (1989) Least bittern nesting on mangrove keys in Florida 

Bay. Fla. Field Nat. . 17(2):43-6. 

The lest bittern (Ixobrychus exilis) is found throughout much of the western 
hemisphere. It is usually associated with a variety of freshwater habitats and to a 
lesser extent salt marshes. In southern Florida, the lest bittern is a common resident of 
the Everglades freshwater marshes, nesting primarily in sawgrass and cattail. Most 
sightings of the least bittern in the Florida Keys have been during the fall or winter 
months suggesting migrating or wintering birds. This study reports the first 
observations of least bittern nesting on mangrove keys in Florida Bay. Observations 
were made from 1985 to 1988 on Middle Butternut Key and Bottle Key. 


1 986 

Butler, M. J., and W. F. Herrnkind (1991) Effect of benthic microhabitat cues on the 
metamorphosis of pueruli of the spiny lobster Panulirus argus. J. Crustacean Biol. . 
11(1 ):23-8. 

To determine whether settlement microhabitat induces metamorphosis in the puerulus 
stage of the Caribbean spiny lobster (Panulirus argus ) and to identify the specific 
features of the habitat that might elicit the response, we monitored the metamorphic 
progress of more than 200 pueruli exposed to 6 different settlement substrates: 
seawater alone (no substrate), red algae, seagrass, artificial algae, algae-treated 
seawater, and artificial algae plus algae-treated seawater. Initial pigmentation followed 
settlement by approximately 1 day and began 3 - 6 days (mean = 5 days) after the 
swimming pueruli were intercepted entering the Florida Bay nursery. Presence of red 
algae, Laurencia spp., a preferred settlement substrate, accelerated the rate of 
pigmentation, but by less than a day. Metamorphosis to the first benthic juvenile stage 
occurred 7 - 9 days (mean = 8 days) after pueruli entered the Bay and were unaffected 
by any of the substrates tested. Rates of both pigmentation and metamorphosis varied 
by as much as 2 days among replicate experiments conducted during the summers of 
1986 - 1988. These results suggest that metamorphosis of pueruli of P. argus is 
essentially determinant; thus, physiological constraints may limit the distance that 
pueruli can disperse into the nursery and may force many pueruli to settle in 
inappropriate habitats where survival is improbable. 


1986 0 

Tagett, M. G., and H. R. Wanless (1986) Marine mudbank nucleation and evolution, western 
Florida Bay. Geol. Soc. Amer. Abs. . 18:768. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Detailed 
lithofacies and faunal analysis of over 100 cores demonstrates that Dildo Key mudbank, 
one of three large mudbanks separating western Florida Bay from the Gulf of Mexico, is 
an amalgamation of several smaller ’core' mudbanks. These are similar to younger 
mudbanks now forming in east-central Florida Bay. Portions of the islands have 


302 





maintained supratidal facies (peats and supratidal muds) throughout their sequence and 
are remnants of once continuous coastal levees. 'Core' mudbanks nucleated upon levees 
and mangrove peats and prograded over brackish to marine packstones that 
accumulated in deeper lagoons. Intrabank lagoons filled forming one large mudbank. 
Radiocarbon dates of peat and shell material indicate that this coastal levee was 
overridden and marine mudbank accretion began about 2,500 yrs BP. Intense marine 
bioturbation blended levee and brackish sediments with overlying marine sediments as 
'core' mudbanks grew up to sea level, destroying large portions of the levee deposits 
upon which banks nucleated. Increased detrital input related to the erosion and initiation 
of tidal channels through mudbanks to the west resulted in continued bank accretion and 
infilling of intrabank lagoons creating one large mudbank. 


1986 

Smith, T. J., H. T. Chan, C. C. Mclvor and M. B. Robblee (1989) Comparisons of seed 
predation in tropical, tidal forests from three continents. Ecology . 70(1):146-51. 

An inverse relationship between the amount of seed predation and the dominance of a 
tree species in mangrove forest canopies has been hypothesized based on field studies 
conducted in Australia. Seed predation experiments have recently been performed in 
mangrove forests of North America and southeast Asia on several species of 
Avicennia, Bruguiera, and Rhizophora. The results of these experiments are compared 
with additional data from Australia to test the generality of the dominance-predation 
model. Significant differences were found in the amount of predation on four species of 
Avicennia. All Avicennia were consumed in greatest quantity where they were rarest 
in the forest canopy and in least amounts where they dominated the canopy. 
Consumption of Rhizophora apiculata in Australia and Malaysia followed patterns 
similar to that for Avicennia. For R. mangle, however, contradictory results were 
obtained. No R. mangle were eaten in Florida. In Panama, more were consumed where 
this mangrove dominated the canopy compared to a forest where it was rare. Results 
for Bruguiera cylindrica in Malaysia supported the dominance-predation model, 
whereas results from Australia for B. gymnorrhiza did not. Data for Avicennia clearly 
support the dominance - predation model. Regardless of species, seed predators exert 
an influence on the distribution of Avicennia in mangrove forests. Variation In the 
amount of predation on Rhizophora among regions is partly attributable to differences in 
the composition of the predator guilds between the forests studied. Predator guilds in 
the Malaysian and Australian forests are dominated by grapsid crabs. In Florida, crabs 
are minor consumers of propagules and three genera of snails are most important. Seed 
predation is variable among forests. The effect of seed predators on mangrove forests 
is related to the type of mangrove tree and composition of the seed predator guild. 
Sampling in Florida took place in 1986. 

1986 

Sternberg, L., and P. K. Swart (1987) Utilization of freshwater and oceanwater by coastal 
plants of south Florida. Ecology . 68:1898-905. 

The coastal vegetation of southern Florida is undergoing dramatic changes due to the 
instability of the ocean water-freshwater boundary. These vegetation changes will be 
determined by the response of each particular species to saline ocean water, 
particularly whether it can use ocean water or not. In this study, isotopic data were 
used to determine the relative usage of freshwater or ocean water by plants in the 
Florida keys. The results indicate that, with some exceptions, plants toward the 
interior of the Keys were using freshwater, while those toward the edge were using 
ocean water. A plot of the hydrogen and oxygen isotopic composition of the plant water 
yielded a mixing line between typical freshwater values and those of ocean water. In 
general, the isotopic ratios of stem water for species found in hardwood hammocks 


303 




were confined to the freshwater end of the line, followed by values of stem water from 
mangrove margin species. Species found in mangroves, however, had water with 
extremely variable isotopic ratios, ranging from values typical of ocean water to 
values typical of freshwater. This variability is consistent with the hypothesis that 
mangroves are fully capable of growing in freshwater, but are limited to saline habitats 
because of competitive exclusion by fast-growing glycophilic plants. 

1986 - 1987 

Bowman, R., G. V. N. Powell, J. A. Hovis, N. C. Kline, and T. Wilmers (1989) Variations in 
reproductive success between subpopulations of the osprey (Pandion haliaetus) in South 
Florida. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. 
Sci. . 44(1 ):245-50. 

Reproductive success of ospreys was used to evaluate the habitat quality of Florida 
Bay. Subpopulations that bred and foraged exclusively in Florida Bay were compared 
with those nesting adjacent to the Bay on the Keys and foraging in the Atlantic Ocean, a 
relatively undisturbed habitat. The study took place in 1986 - 1987. Osprey 
reproduction on Gulf side islands in the lower Keys, which have a structure similar to 
keys in Florida Bay but are more affected by oceanic influences, was compared with 
nest success on adjacent mainline Keys. Florida Bay ospreys produced significantly 
fewer fledglings per occupied, active, and successful nest than those on the upper Keys. 
In the lower Keys, however, there was no significant difference between gulfside and 
mainline key nesting success. Ospreys nesting on the upper mainline keys departed on 
foraging trips towards the Bay and the ocean in nearly equal proportions. However, 
47.2% of food deliveries came from the direction of the ocean while only 19.5% came 
from the Bay. Access to the ocean played a significant role in the greater reproductive 
success of birds nesting on the Keys and suggested that Florida Bay ospreys are 
experiencing decreased reproductive success due to an inadequate food supply. 

1986 - 1987 

Lapointe, B. E., J. D. O'Connell, and G. S. Garrett (1990) Nutrient couplings between on-site 
sewage disposal systems, groundwaters, and nearshore surface waters of the Florida Keys. 
Biogeochem. . 10:289-307. 

This paper reports the results of a one-yr study to determine the effects of on-site 
sewage disposal systems (OSDS, septic tanks) on the nutrient relations of limestone 
ground waters and nearshore surface waters of the Florida Bay side of the Florida 
Keys. Monitor wells were installed on canal residences with OSDS and a control site in 
the Key Deer National Wildlife Refuge on Big Pine Key. Ground water and surface water 
samples were collected monthly during 1987 and analyzed for concentrations of 
dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN = N0 3 ’ + N0 2 * + NH 4 + ), soluble reactive phosphate 
(SRP), temperature and salinity. Significant nutrient enrichment (up to 5000-fold) 
occurred in ground waters contiguous to OSDS; DIN was enriched an average of 400- 
fold and SRP some 70-fold compared to control ground waters. Ammonium was the 
dominant nitrogenous species and its concentration ranged from a low of 0.77 pM in 
control wells to 2.75 mM in OSDS-enriched ground waters. Concentrations of N0 3 * plus 
N0 2 * were also highly enriched and ranged from 0.05 |iM in control wells to 2.89 mM in 
enriched ground waters. Relative to DIN, concentrations of SRP were low and ranged 
from 30 nM in control wells to 107 ^M in enriched ground waters. N: P ratios of 
enriched ground waters were consistently > 100 and increased with increasing distance 
from the OSDS, suggesting significant, but incomplete, adsorption of SRP by subsurface 
flow through carbonate substrata. Nutrient concentrations of ground waters varied 
seasonally and were approximately two-fold higher during the winter (DIN = 1035 ^M; 
SRP = 10.3 jiM) compared to summer (DIN = 470 nM; SRP = 4.0 |iM). In contrast, 
surface water nutrient concentrations were two-fold higher during the summer (DIN = 


304 




5.0 m-M; SRP = 0.50 ^M) compared to winter (DIN = 2.5 jiM; SRP = 0.15 pM). Direct 
measurement of subsurface ground water flow rate indicated that tides and increased 
ground water recharge enhanced flow some two-fold and six-fold, respectively. 
Accordingly, the observed seasonal coupling of OSDS-derived nutrients from ground 
waters to surface waters is maximum during summer because of seasonally maximum 
tides and increased hydraulic head during the summer wet season. The yearly average 
benthic flux of anthropogenic DIN into contiguous canal surface waters is 55 mmol rrr 2 
day 1 , a value some five-fold greater than the highest rate of benthic N-fixation 
measured in carbonate-rich tropical marine waters. 

1986 - 1987 

Montague, C. L., R. D. Bartleson, and J. A. Ley (1989) Assessment of benthic communities 
along salinity gradients in northeastern Florida Bay. Final Rep. to the National Park Service. 
Contr. CA 5280-5-8004. University of Florida and South Florida Water Management 
District from South Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 155 
pp. + App. 

Submerged vegetation and bottom-dwelling animals (benthic communities) were 
quantified together with aquatic system metabolism and a variety of environmental 
parameters at twelve stations along three salinity gradients in northeast Florida Bay, 
south of C-111 canal. Scheduled modifications to the canal will likely change the 
freshwater delivery to this region. Concern has been expressed about the potential 
impact this may have on a variety of fish and wildlife, especially commercially and 
recreationally valuable fishes that may use the region as habitat. Benthic communities 
are known to provide food and cover to a wide variety of juvenile and adult estuarine 
and marine fishes and shellfishes. The purpose of this assessment was to document the 
type and development of existing benthic communities and to provide information about 
how changes in salinity might affect changes in the benthic communities in this area. It 
was believed that repeatedly sampling at stations located along salinity gradients would 
meet these objectives. Following a pilot study of five field trips to 21 stations (March 
through August 1986), 12 stations were selected for final study, four in each of three 
tributary-to-bay systems in northeast Florida Bay. Within each system, stations were 
selected to be as similar as possible in all respects except salinity. The salinity change 
from upstream to outer stations was similar among the three systems. The western 
system (Taylor River, Little Madeira Bay) is considered to be little influenced by the 
C-111 canal and therefore serves as a potential control for judging future effects of 
canal modifications. The central system (Snook Creek, Joe Bay, Trout Cove) and 
eastern system (Highway Creek, Long Sound, Little Blackwater Sound) are believed to 
be directly in the pathway of any influence of canal modifications. In the main study, 
stations were sampled using identical techniques every other month for 12 months 
beginning in August 1986 (through September 1987). Benthic community development 
and metabolism were very low in general. Overall gross primary production was only 
188 g C m' 2 yr 1 . Gross primary production at outer stations, however, was three 
times higher than at upstream stations. The planktonic portion of this production was 
very low at all stations, but was twice as high at upstream stations, where it 
accounted for 44% of the gross production (as opposed to only 72 at outer stations). 
Benthic communities at outer stations, although low in production and biomass 
compared to other Florida Bay seagrass-dominated communities, had roughly 50 times 
more numbers of animals and biomass of plants than upstream stations. Plants at outer 
stations were dominated by turtlegrass ( Thalassia testudinum) and calcareous green 
macroalgae (primarily Penicillus and Udotea). The few plants at the upstream stations 
consisted mostly of shoalgrass ( Halodule wrightii), widgeongrass (Ruppia maritima), 
and the green macroalgae Chara. Roughly 95% of all animals collected at each station 
were polychaetes, peracaridean crustaceans (amphipods, isopods, and tanaids), and 
bivalve mollusks. Variation in salinity that includes frequent changes from freshwater 


305 


to marine conditions is believed to account for the depauperate benthic communities at 
upstream stations. Upstream stations had both lower mean salinity and much more 
variable salinity than outer stations. Many other environmental conditions did not 
systematically vary from upstream to outer stations, owing in part to careful selection 
of stations. These included average water depth, average water-level fluctuation, 
sediment thickness, sediment organic content and sediment particle size. Weather and 
water temperature, light extinction, pH, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), 
orthophosphate concentration, morning dissolved oxygen, and plankton metabolism also 
did not vary significantly from upstream to downstream. Some parameters did vary 
systematically from outer to upstream stations. These include daily change in dissolved 
oxygen concentration, dissolved oxygen level in the afternoon, and total open-water 
oxygen metabolism (all lower upstream), total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and 
ammonium concentrations (all higher upstream), variation in total nitrogen and 
ammonium concentrations (higher upstream), total suspended solids (lower upstream), 
and bottom water temperature (slightly higher upstream). Some of these tendencies, 
however, could be partially or wholly explained by the lack of vegetation, which if 
present would increase oxygen and decrease nutrient concentrations. Some 
environmental differences were noticed among the three systems (western, central, 
and eastern). The eastern system tributary (Highway Creek) was lower in salinity and 
higher in upstream discharge of water. Differences in benthic community development 
and degree of salinity fluctuation between upstream and outer stations were greatest in 
the western system, perhaps resulting from a lower discharge of freshwater in that 
system. It seems apparent that the US Highway 1 causeway (together with the routine 
plugging of the C-111 canal) accounts for the greater flow of water in the eastern 
system by blocking an apparently historical water flow more to the east (as judged by 
the northwest-to-southeast orientation of tree "islands’ in the marshes on each side of 
the highway). Phosphorus appears to be in very short supply compared to nitrogen in 
the water at our stations. In nature an atom-based nitrogen-to-phosphorus ratio of 
16:1 is often used for comparison. The waters of our stations have an average ratio of 
over 300:1, indicating the likelihood of severe phosphorus limitation. No indication of 
significant supplies of nitrogen or phosphorus from inflowing waters was found, though 
our study was not designed with this objective in mind and did not include all necessary 
measurements for a definitive conclusion about nutrient transport in freshwater flow 
into northeast Florida Bay. Salinity fluctuation is apparently much more influential on 
benthic community development than are nutrients at our stations. Addition of nutrients 
would undoubtedly increase primary production at our stations, but the form of this 
production is difficult to predict. It could be benthic bluegreen algae (e.g. Lyngbya), 
benthic diatoms, planktonic microalgae, or submerged vegetation, such as seagrasses 
and macroalgae. 

1986 - 1987 

Montague, C. L., and J. A. Ley (1993) A possible effect of salinity fluctuation on abundance 

of benthic vegetation and associated fauna in northeastern Florida Bay. Estuaries . 

1 6(4):703-1 7. 

In southern Florida, a vast network of canals and water control structures mediate 
freshwater discharge into the coastal zone. Management protocol for one such canal 
network (C-111) is being modified in part to try to improve habitat for estuarine fish 
and wading birds in northeastern Florida Bay. Changes in canal management could alter 
the spatial and temporal salinity regime in the estuary. To better predict the effect of 
such changes on estuarine habitat, abundances of submersed vegetation and benthic 
animals were sampled repeatedly at 12 stations during 1986 to 1987 that differed in 
salinity. A variety of other parameters were also measured (nutrients, light, 
temperature, oxygen, sediment characteristics, and others). Mean salinity among 


306 



stations ranged from 11.4 to 33.1 °/oo. Densities of benthic plants and animals differed 
among stations by several orders of magnitude. The standard deviation of salinity was 
the best environmental correlate with mean plant biomass and benthic animal density: 
less biota occurred at stations with greater fluctuations in salinity. The two stations 
with the least plant biomass also had the highest mean water temperatures. In a 
stepwise multiple regression analysis, standard deviation of salinity accounted for 
59% of the variation in the logarithm of mean plant biomass among stations. For every 
3 °/oo increase in the standard deviation, total benthic plant biomass decreased by an 
order of magnitude. Mean water temperature accounted for only 14% of the variation, 
and mean salinity was not included for lack of significance. At stations with widely 
fluctuating salinities, not only was biomass low, but species dominance also frequently 
changed. Severe fluctuation in salinity may have prevented abundant benthos by causing 
physiological stress that reduced growth and survival. Salinity may not have remained 
within the range of tolerance of any one plant species for long enough to allow the 
development of a substantially vegetated benthic community. Hence, gaining control 
over salinity fluctuation may be the key to estuarine habitat improvement through canal 
management in southern Florida. 

1986 - 1987 

Swart, P. K., L. D. S. L. Sternberg, R. Steinen, and S. A. Harrison (1989) Controls on the 
oxygen and hydrogen isotopic composition of the waters of Florida Bay, USA. Chem. Geol. 
(Isot. Geosci. Section) . 79(2):113-23. 

The oxygen and hydrogen isotopic composition has been measured in waters from 
Florida Bay and from fluids squeezed from sediments which make up Holocene islands in 
the Bay. Although, these waters ranged in salinity from 27 to 120 g kg' 1 , most were 
found to have very similar hydrogen and oxygen isotopic compositions (8 18 0 = +2 to +4 
%o, 8D = +5 to +25 °/oo). In order to explain these observations, the Craig-Gordon 
and Gonfiantini evaporation models, which account for oxygen and hydrogen isotopic 
fractionation during the desiccation of saline water bodies, were applied. These models 
provide excellent agreement for the evaporation of water into an environment with a 
relative humidity of 77%, a temperature of 25°C and atmospheric water vapor 
possessing 6 18 0- and 5D-values of -11 and -75 °/oo, respectively. The salinity of 
fluids from one core on Cluett Key (26.9 g kg' 1 ) was well below that of the surrounding 
Bay (>40 g kg' 1 ) and the water from this locality was depleted in both D and 18 0. These 
5 18 0- and 5D-values, plotted together with other data from this study, fall on a line 
possessing a slope of 4.90 (± 0.41), similar to what would be expected from the 
evaporation models. This line intersects the meteoric water line at 5 1s O- and 5D-values 
which are within error, similar to average 5 18 0- and 5D-values measured for rainfall 
in the Miami area. Water samples were collected on several occasions from Cluett Key 
and Crane Key during 1986 and 1987. 

1986 - 1988 

Montague, C., [R. D. Bartleson, J. F. Gottgens, J. A. Ley, and R. M. Ruble] (1989) The 
distribution and dynamics of submerged vegetation along gradients of salinity in northeast 
Florida Bay. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. 
Sci. . 44( 1):521. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Submerged 
vegetation, important habitat for juvenile stages of many fish and shellfish, was 
sampled along salinity gradients in three tributary to bay transects (west, central and 
east) each with four stations (Bay to upstream). The three transects are 10 to 12 km 
apart on the eastern 20 km of the mainland coast that borders northeast Florida Bay. 
The objective was to collect information relevant to the effects of changes in 
freshwater delivery to this area. Samples have been collected eight times during 1988 


307 





to document changes in vegetation. The stations differ in both mean salinity and salinity 
variation. Mean surface salinities at the outermost stations ranged from 31 %o 
(western transect) to 23 °/oo (eastern). At the uppermost stations, mean surface 
salinities were: 15 %o (western), 10 (central) and 11 (eastern). Temporal variation 
in salinity was highest at the upstream stations and lowest at the outer stations, 
except in the central transect, where all stations were variable. Upper stations ranged 
from near fresh to over 30 %o during the past year. The western outermost station 
was the least variable, ranging from 28 to 34 %o. Vegetation in the entire area was 
sparse (0 to 600 g dry mass nr 2 ), perhaps owing in part to fluctuation in salinity. 
Least variable stations had the greatest biomass. The outermost stations were 
dominated by turtlegrass ( Thalassia testudinum) or the calcareous alga Penicillus. 
Dominants change to widgeongrass ( Ruppia maritima) and the algae Chara and Batophora 
at the upstream stations. Shoalgrass (Halodule wrightii) was common at intermediate 
stations. Vegetation at upstream stations was dynamic. In March 1986, the upstream 
stations of the central transect were covered with dense stands of Ruppia, Chara and 
Batophora. Salinity was 13 %o, suitable for the growth of these plants. By May, 
however salinity rose to 26 %o and the vegetation had disappeared. Despite the return 
of lower salinities, vegetation at these stations remained sparse. Vegetation at the 
other upstream stations was sparse throughout the study period. The potential for 
dense stands of submerged vegetation is perhaps present at some or all of these 
upstream stations, but the frequency and magnitude of fluctuations in salinity may 
prevent stand development. 


1987 0 

Dawes, C. J. (1987) The dynamic seagrasses of the Gulf of Mexico and Florida coasts. Fla. 

Mar. Res. PubL 42:25-38. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Of the seven species of 
seagrasses that occur in Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, three species form the 
dominant biomass in open shallow water (0.5 - 5 m): Thalassia testudinum (turtle 
grass), Syringodium filiforme (manatee grass), and Halodule wrightii (shoal grass). 
Although a much smaller plant by comparison, Halophila decipiens forms large meadows 
in deep waters (5 - 100 m). Halophila johnsonii and H. englemannii occur mixed in 
shallow-water seagrass communities. Ruppia maritima forms dense stands at the 
mouths of rivers where salinities rarely exceed 10 %o, on tidal flats where it is 
exposed to desiccation, and in subtidal areas of higher salinity. One hundred and 
thirteen algal epiphytes have been identified in seagrass blades around Florida. Up to 
120 macroalgal species have been identified in seagrass communities. Proximate 
constituent and kilocalorie levels have been used to demonstrate that the rhizome of the 
larger seagrass species is a storage organ with soluble carbohydrate changing 
seasonally. Cellulose fiber levels in the blades of the three larger seagrasses are 
similar to those of true terrestrial grasses, being highest in the blades of H. wrightii, 
and correlating with water movement. The biomass of six seagrass communities on 
Florida's west coast averaged 385 g dry wt nrf 2 , and energy levels averaged 981 kcal 
m' 2 . Caloric values are highest in seagrass communities during the summer, and range 
from a 15-month winter low of 344 to a summer-fall high of 1837 kcal nrr 2 , of which 
drift and attached seaweeds account for 75%. The lack of information regarding 
epiphyte biomass, energetics, and productivity, as well as the need to model a T. 
testudinum seagrass community, and the need for more growth and energetics 
information on the below-ground component of seagrass communities are pointed out. 


1987 0 

Fry, B., S. A. Macko, and J. C. Zieman (1987) Review of stable isotopic investigations of 
food webs in seagrass meadows. Fla. Mar. Res. PubL 42:189-209. 


308 




[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Seagrasses are important 
sources of organic matter for food webs in many coastal ecosystems. However, stable 
isotopic investigations conducted over the past decade have shown that phytoplankton 
and epiphytic algae can have an equal or greater nutritional importance than seagrasses 
for consumers in many seagrass meadows. Nutrient availability may govern the 
relative importance of algal and seagrass foods, with the result that eutrophic waters 
favor food webs based on algae, but detrital seagrasses are more important in 
oligotrophic waters. This review summarizes many previously unpublished stable 
isotopic studies of seagrass ecosystems. Assumptions commonly made in interpretation 
of isotopic values are evaluated, and four main conclusions are drawn: (1) Within one 
species, seagrass 5 13 C varies significantly between individuals, populations, and 
seasons; (2) Carbon isotopic changes during seagrass decomposition are small, 
approximately 1 °/oo; (3) Little fractionation of carbon isotopes occurs during food web 
processing of live or detrital seagrasses; and (4) Benthic algae can have carbon 
isotopic values close to those of seagrasses, consequently 5 13 C measurements are not 
always unambiguous tracers of seagrass carbon. Latter sections show that stable 
hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur isotopic measurements can be used in conjunction with 
carbon isotopic measurements to show consumer dependence on seagrass organic 
matter, and that isotopic measurements can be useful for mapping highly localized food 
webs. 


1987 0 

Gilmore, R. G. (1987) Subtropical-tropical seagrass communities of the southeastern United 

States: fishes and fish communities. Fla. Mar. Res. PubL 42:117-137. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Paper reviews the community 
relationships of fishes associated with seagrasses and is based on studies done in the 
southeastern US including Florida Bay. Prior to 1960, most ichthyofaunal research was 
necessarily taxonomic and zoogeographic, with little attention given to habitat or 
substrate associations. With the advent of long-term faunal studies within specific 
habitats and analyses of physical and biological parameters affecting fish distribution, 
seagrasses were recognized as a distinct fish habitat. Regional ichthyological research 
in seagrass ecosystems has been conducted primarily in the northeastern Gulf of 
Mexico and principally in the Apalachee Bay region. Consequently, regional tropical and 
subtropical seagrass ichthyofaunas have received little study. The available literature 
on tropical and subtropical fish-seagrass associations is not adequate for quantitative 
assessment, but it reveals zoogeographic distribution patterns and enables some 
prediction of species occurrence in seagrass ecosystems. Fishery species have 
received the most intense study, particularly certain sciaenids and sparids, such as the 
spotted seatrout, Cynoscion nebulosus, and the pinfish, Lagodon rhomboides. However, 
many species need further treatment as their microhabitat associations, general 
biology, behavior, and mortality rates during juvenile developmental periods have not 
received adequate attention. Typically diminutive and numerically abundant nonfishery 
species, such as gobiids and syngnathids, make up the majority of resident species 
within the seagrass ecosystem. Their biology and impact on this ecosystem await 
further study. The inter- and intraspecific interactions of various seagrass residents 
and systematically occurring transients need to be researched, particularly with 
regard to predatory relationships, territorial behavior, invertebrate population 
dynamics and distribution, seagrass morphology, and meadow homogeneity. The 
hierarchical predatory relationships between various fish species guilds throughout the 
total ecosystem, particularly with regard to tertiary and upper level predators, have 
been virtually ignored. 


309 



1987 

Kieber, D. J. (1988) Marine biogeochemistry of alpha-keto acids. Ph. D. Dissertation. 

University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL. 243 pp. 

There is an increasing awareness of the importance of dissolved organic matter (DOM) 
in a variety of physical, chemical, and biological processes in seawater. Measurements 
of specific components of DOM (e.g., amino acids) have provided valuable insights into 
these processes. a-Keto acids represent a potentially important component of DOM; 
however, their marine biogeochemistry is poorly understood. Therefore, a detailed 
investigation of processes affecting cycling of a-keto acids in seawater was 
undertaken. Initial studies demonstrated that a-keto acids were formed when filtered 
seawater was irradiated with sunlight. Average photochemical production rates for 
Biscayne Bay seawater were 8.2 and 5.7 nM W' 1 hr' 1 nr 2 for glyoxylic and pyruvic 
acids respectively. Photochemical production rates varied significantly for seawater 
collected from distinctly different regions of the sea. Higher production rates were 
observed for seawater from coastal locations (e.g., Biscayne Bay, Florida Bay) 
relative to oligotrophic seawater from the Sargasso Sea or the Gulf Stream. 
Photochemical decarboxylation rates of a-keto acids were determined using 
radiolabeled tracers. Decarboxylation rates were less than 5% of photoproduction 
rates. Slow rates of decarboxylation indicated that the major removal pathway of a- 
keto acids in seawater was biological and not chemical. Midday photochemical 
production rates of a-keto acids were highly correlated with their rate of biological 
uptake (pyruvate, r = 0.967; glyoxylate, r = 0.736) suggesting that these processes 
may be closely related in the photic zone. These results suggest that photochemical 
processes may play an important role in the transformation and remineralization of 
DOM in the photic zone. An intensive field study was undertaken to assess the spatial 
and temporal distribution of a-keto acids in the northwest Atlantic Ocean and Cariaco 
Trench. Physical, chemical, and biological factors were important determinants 
controlling the cycling of these compounds in the sea. Oxic-anoxic interfaces or the 
onset of a sharp pycnocline were particularly active zones of a-keto acid production 
and consumption. Strong diurnal fluctuations in a-keto concentrations were often 
observed in surface seawater. A potentially important degradation pathway of 
biologically refractory dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is its photochemical oxidation in 
the photic zone. a-Keto acids were not quantitatively important oxidation products of 
this process; their production represented less than 0.1% of DOC oxidized. 


1987 0 

Livingston, R. J. (1987) Historic trends of human impacts on seagrass meadows in Florida. 

Fla. Mar. Res. PubL 42:139-151. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Since 1940, Florida has 
undergone unprecedented population growth, which is expected to accelerate into the 
next century. Municipalization, industrialization, and agricultural activities in coastal 
drainage systems have been accompanied by various impacts in almost every bay 
system in Florida. Seagrass meadows have been virtually eliminated in most portions of 
the Pensacola Bay and Tampa Bay systems. Significant losses have been noted over the 
past 20 - 40 yrs in Choctawhatchee Bay, Apalachee Bay, Charlotte Harbor, Biscayne 
Bay, and the Indian River. A lack of reliable data precludes appropriate evaluations in 
other areas. However, the two primary concentrations of seagrasses in the northern 
hemisphere, Florida Bay and the northwest Gulf coast (including Apalachee Bay), are 
currently threatened by wide-ranging forms of human activity, which include 
freshwater diversion, agricultural activities, dredging, and offshore oil drilling The 
general lack of long-term, multidisciplinary ecological studies has inhibited a thorough 
understanding of the problem. Recent studies in Apalachee Bay indicate that relatively 
minor water-quality changes can destroy or severely alter seagrass distribution and 


310 



productivity. Recovery after impact appears to be slow. Land planning and resource 
management efforts to protect seagrass habitats have been either lacking or largely 
ineffectual in the state as a whole. In some areas, such as the Apalachicola estuary, a 
comprehensive research and management effort has been developed and could provide a 
model for future planning in Florida, although the long-term effectiveness of such 
programs remains untested. Nevertheless, in a few decades, human activities have 
eliminated significant proportions of existing seagrass meadows in Florida. Based on 
past encroachment and projected population increases, the outlook for remaining 
seagrass beds is bleak. 


1987 0 

Mitchell-Tapping, H. J. (1987) Application of tidal mudflat model to Sunniland Formation 

(Lower Cretaceous) of south Florida. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. . 70:1120. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] For many 
years, the Lower Cretaceous Sunniland oil-producing fields have been interpreted as 
reef deposits. Petrologic evidence from cores from field and wildcat wells strongly 
indicates, on the basis of faunal composition and character, that the fields are produced 
from moundlike shoals. These shoals are considered to have been deposited in a mudflat 
environment similar to that of present-day Florida Bay. This present-day Florida Bay 
analog is used to determine the various environmental subzones and controls on the 
deposition of the Sunniland Formation. This concept of using a model together with a 
modern analog can be a powerful tool in the exploration of stratigraphic traps. A 
petrologic and petrophysical study of the Sunniland Formation in the wells that have 
been drilled in the Florida Bay and Keys areas was made to extend the model and its 
application throughout the South Florida basin. The evaluation of these wells has 
produced new insights into the tectonics of this basin and its relationship to the 
Bahamas and Caribbean areas. 


1987 0 

Mitterer, R. N., I. P. Dzou, R. M. Miranda, and M. E. Caughey (1987) Extractable and 
pyrolyzed hydrocarbons in shallow-water carbonate sediments, Florida Bay, Florida. 
Advances in organic geochemistry . Part I, Organic geochemistry in petroleum exploration. 
Proc., 13th international meeting on organic geochemistry. L. Mattavelli, and L. Novelli 
(eds.). Organic Geochemistry . 13(1 -3):283-94. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] A three-dimensional organic 
geochemical survey conducted in Florida Bay, a subtropical carbonate environment with 
multiple sources of organic matter, illustrates the hydrocarbon source potential of 
shallow water carbonate sediments and the effect of multiple biochemical sources on 
the organic sedimentary imprint. Organic carbon (TOC) in the sediments averages about 
one per cent. Concentrations of extractable organic matter (EOM) and hydrocarbons are 
slightly higher, and of organic carbon slightly lower, in sediments of the marine- 
dominated part of the Bay. Hydrocarbon distribution, which is a function of the type of 
organic matter, also varies across the Bay. The C 15+ n-alkanes in sediments of the 
terrestrially-influenced portion exhibit a bimodal pattern, with maxima at C 27 , or C 29 
and C 18 and a marked odd/even carbon-number predominance in the C 21 -C 31 range. In 
contrast, C 15 n-alkanes in sediments of the marine-dominated portion have maxima at 
r, or C <Q and C 0 o or C OA . TOC decreases, but EOM and hydrocarbon content increase, 
with depth in the sediment. Hydrous and anhydrous pyrolysis of bulk sediments and 
individual carbonates generates a new suite of n-alkanes with n even carbon-number 
predominance and a maximum at C 22 . Yields of EOM and hydrocarbons are comparable 
for both types of pyrolyzates and are 6 to 8 times greater than in situ EOM and 





hydrocarbons. Carbonate sediments deposited in low energy, shallow-water, 
environments have the potential to be good oil source rocks. 


1987 0 

Pike, S. F. (1987) Computer simulation of configuration and sealevel changes in Florida Bay. 

M. S. Thesis. Wichita State University, Wichita, KS. 160 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.) Florida Bay is a large triangular, 
shallow-marine, shovel-shaped basin at the southern tip of mainland Florida. The Bay is 
bounded to the south and east by the Florida Keys, to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, 
and to the north by the Florida Everglades. Florida Bay covers approximately 900 sq 
mi. The Bay has been the site of numerous sedimentological studies since it was 
discovered that in situ calcium carbonate is being deposited there. A quantitative 
simulation of the Bay was developed using basic data from previous studies. This study 
was done to be able to predict possible future configurations of the Bay with different 
topographic, structural, and sealevel changes. There has been some discussion recently 
about whether Florida Bay is filling in with sediment or eroding, and whether sealevel 
is rising faster than the rate of accumulation. The three main features of this 
simulation, which uses the present configuration compiled from available navigation 
charts are: (1) use of a modified Holocene sealevel curve; (2) different waves of 
generation and accumulation of carbonate mud; and (3) tilting of the Bay to the 
southwest at variable rates. By differing the three variables, it is possible to project 
forward in time to predict future conditions. The study determined that sealevel was 
the major factor of the factors simulated, in controlling the configuration of the Bay. It 
also was determined that the Bay is filling in with sediment from the north and west. 


1987 0 

Powell, G. V. N. (1987) Habitat use by wading birds in a subtropical estuary: implications 

of hydrography. The Auk . 104:740-9. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.) The dynamics of foraging habitat 
use by long-legged wading birds was analyzed with respect to water-level fluctuation 
patterns in Florida Bay. Wading bird presence at four sites situated to sample the 
heterogeneity of the Bay was quantified by repeated surveys collected throughout the 
day and year. Models for habitat availability were generated using water-level data 
collected from continuous recorders, staff gauges, and habitat profile maps. These 
models were tested against the survey data. Roseate spoonbills ( Ajaja ajaja) foraged on 
the study areas primarily at night. Great blue herons ( Ardea herodias) fed both day and 
night, but primarily at night where the tidal range was small. Great egrets 
(Casmerodius albus ), snowy ( Egretta thula) and reddish (E. rufescens) egrets, little 
blue (E. caerulea) and tricolored (E. tricolor) and white Ibis ( Eudocimus albus) fed 
during daylight. Where tidal range was small (<5 cm) diurnal species fed throughout the 
day. Florida Bay has a pronounced annual water-level cycle that causes monthly mean 
water levels to vary by as much as 30 cm between October (high) and May (low). 
Models derived from hydrology data predicted that this seasonal variation in water 
level would have a major impact on habitat availability, particularly where tidal flux 
was small. The predictions were supported by survey data. At sites with minor tides, 
most wading-bird species had a cycle in seasonal abundance that correlated with 
seasonal changes in water level. Only the tallest species, Ardea herodias, was 
uniformly present throughout the year. The large daily range in tide (approximately 80 
cm) afforded year round access to foraging habitat and these abundance patterns did not 
exist. The seasonal variability in habitat availability has major management 
implications because the maintenance of stable wading bird populations depends on the 
availability of alternative foraging sites when water levels are high. Historically these 
sites have tended to be targeted for human development. 


312 



1987 0 

Virnstein, R. W. (1987) Seagrass-associated invertebrate communities of the southeastern 

USA: a review. Fla. Mar. Res. PubL 42:89-116. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Community structure of 
invertebrates associated with seagrasses in the southeastern United States is 
intensively studied and well described at a few sites, but generally is not well 
understood. A high regional diversity exists, due to the overlap of subtropical, tropical 
(Caribbean), and warm-temperate (Carolinian) faunas. Decapod crustaceans, especially 
the caridean shrimps, numerically dominate the larger (trawl susceptible) fauna. 
Dominant species of decapods are similar throughout most of the region. Community 
structure of smaller macrofauna (emphasized in this review) is dynamic. Species 
composition (dominant species) and density vary widely over small and large distances 
and over short (hours to days) and long (years) time scales. Dominant higher taxa are 
peracarid crustaceans (especially amphipods), gastropod mollusks, and polychaete 
worms. Important controlling physical factors are sediments (for the infauna) and 
habitat complexity (for the epifauna). The latter is determined largely by seagrass 
density, which is best measured in terms of plant surface area. Seagrasses exert their 
influence primarily by providing physical structure to the habitat. Additional physical 
structure is provided by drift algae and epiphytes; the latter is especially important 
for smaller macrofauna and meiofauna. Predation, especially by pinfish and pink 
shrimp, is thought to be the major biological interaction affecting community structure. 
Evidence for the importance of predation comes from feeding studies, correlations of 
invertebrate abundance with predator abundance in the field, and predator exclusion and 
inclusion caging studies. Competition affects micro-distribution of two shrimp species, 
but the effects of competition, habitat selectivity, food supply, migrations, behavior, 
reproduction, and recruitment have received little attention. Two major functions of 
seagrass meadows are the provision of food and of refuge; together, these constitute 
the ’nursery* function. Epiphytes, not detritus or living seagrass tissue, provide the 
major source of food for the invertebrates. Small invertebrates are important prey for 
most abundant species of fish and decapod crustaceans. Some species of decapods are 
herbivores, however, and decapods cannot be lumped into a single trophic category. The 
degree of refuge provided by seagrasses depends on the relationships between, and 
characteristics of, habitat, predator, and prey. 


1987 0 

Zieman, J. C. (1987) A review of certain aspects of the life, death, and distribution of the 

seagrasses of the southeastern United States 1960 - 1985. Fla. Mar. Res. PubL 42:53-71. 
[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Seagrass meadows are among the 
richest and ecologically most important coastal habitats. In the United States, the 
greatest seagrass resources are along the south and west coasts of Florida, with over 
5,500 km 2 of seagrass in south Florida, and a second extensive bed covering over 
3,000 km 2 between Tampa and Apalachee Bay. Well developed seagrass meadows occur 
at depths over 10 m in clear waters, but are often limited to less than 2 m in turbid, 
polluted estuaries. In these latter areas, suspended particulate matter, as well as 
overgrowths of epiphytic algae, brought about by excess nutrients in the water column, 
can stress the seagrasses. In more pristine waters, seagrasses maintain high 
productivity by obtaining nutrients from the sediments via extensive root and rhizome 
systems, which, coupled with the current-baffling effect of the leaf canopy, protect 
and stabilize the sediments. In turbid, shallow seagrass systems, much of the food web 
is based on epiphytic algal grazing, but the dominant trophic pathway in most seagrass 
systems seems to be via the detrital food web. Seagrass leaves are a relatively rich 
food source, compared to saltmarsh plants and mangroves, but are grazed directly by 


313 




few organisms, especially outside of tropical Caribbean waters. In addition to 
contributing to local food webs, detached seagrass blades are often exported great 
distances and serve as food sources hundreds of kilometers from their source beds. 

1987 - 1988 

Zieman, J. C., J. Fourqurean, M. B. Robblee, M. Durako, P. Carlson, and G. Powell (1988) A 
catastrophic die-off of seagrasses in Florida Bay and Everglades National Park. EOS Trans. . 
69:111 1. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY.] Over the past year, Florida Bay has experienced a major die-off of 
seagrasses and benthic macrophytes totaling several thousands of hectares. Dead areas 
range from patches 0.5 m across to contiguous, thousand hectare dead zones and 
include all benthic vegetation. There are four major distressed areas, three in the 
west-central bay and one in the east. None are directly adjacent to the Florida Keys. 
The areas affected are primarily basins and the sides of basins, all with very dense 
seagrass (primarily Thalassia) cover and reduced circulation. Abnormal amounts of 
dead leaves were first noted in August 1987. By July-August 1988, the phenomenon 
appears to be slowly enlarging, although there is definite evidence of regrowth in some 
affected areas. Surviving and recolonizing shoots possess unique morphologies, 
including short internodal distances and abnormally high leaves/shoot (up to 17). Pore 
water sulfide concentrations were about two times higher in dead areas as opposed to 
nearby, apparently dead areas (2.14 vs 1.32 mmol). Several hypothetical mechanisms 
responsible for the die-off are being explored including (I) abnormally high 
temperatures in summer 1987, (2) extreme salinities, and (3) disease, among other 
possibilities. At the present time the area is experiencing abnormal epiphyte and algal 
growth, apparently due to the release of nutrients from the nutrient rich barren 
sediments and the thousands of metric tons of decaying seagrass. 

1987 - 1989 

Fourqurean, J. W., J. C. Zieman, G. V. N. Powell (1992) Relationships between porewater 
nutrients and seagrasses in a subtropical carbonate environment. Mar. Biol. . 114:57-65. 
The primary source of nutrients for seagrass growth is considered to be sediment 
porewater. Porewater nutrient concentrations were measured in 18 seagrass beds 
across Florida Bay during the summers of 1987 and 1988. Concentrations of nutrients 
in porewater varied widely, with median values of 0.34 pM for soluble reactive P 
(SRP) and 78.6 nM for NH 4 + . SRP and NH 4 + concentrations were positively correlated. 
Due to spatial heterogeneity, there were no apparent trends with sediment depth (down 
to 40 cm) in the porewater nutrient concentrations. The SRP concentration of the 
porewater was highest in areas supporting Halodule wrightii, intermediate in areas of 
Thalassia testudinum, and lowest in sediments without seagrasses. There was no 
similar relationship with NH 4 + . Porewater SRP, but not NH 4 + , was significantly 
correlated with total seagrass standing crop. Elemental content (both N and P) of green 
leaves of T. testudinum was a function of the concentration of the nutrients in the 
porewater. Standing crop of T. testudinum was correlated with phosphorus content, but 
not with N content, of the seagrass leaves. The results support the hypothesis that 
sediment porewaters are the most important source of nutrients for seagrass growth. 
In the Bay's subtropical carbonate environment, the availability of P in the porewater 
limits the development, and controls the species composition of seagrass. 

1987 - 1989 

Fourqurean, J. W., J. C. Zieman, G. V. N. Powell (1992) Phosphorus limitation of primary 
production in Florida Bay: evidence from C:N:P ratios of the dominant seagrass Thalassia 
testudinum. Limnol. Oceanoar. . 37( 1): 162-71. 


314 





Variation of C, N, and P content of leaves of Thalassia testudinum was measured on two 
spatial scales: locally (10-100 m) in relation to a point source of nutrients associated 
with a bird colony in eastern Florida Bay, and regionally (10-100 km) across all of the 
Florida Bay. Locally, the P content of leaves decreased from a high of 0.16% P (wt/wt) 
30 m from the nutrient source to a low of 0.08% 120 m from the source; the C and N 
content (34.9 and 2.19%) was independent of distance from the nutrient source. Due to 
variations in P content, C:P and N:P, but not C:N, varied locally. Regionally, P content 
varied greatly, from 0.05 to 0.209%. Carbon (29.4 - 39.5%) and N (1.7 - 2.7%) 
showed considerably less variation. Variation in C:P and N:P across the Bay 
encompassed a range nearly as great as reported for all seagrasses around the world 
combined. The C:N ratio showed little variation. Local variation around the nutrient 
point source indicated that C:P and N:P were indicators of P availability, and trend 
analysis of the regional spatial variation in C:P and N:P showed that P availability was 
greatest in northwest, and least in eastern Florida Bay. This pattern mirrored 
abundance of seagrasses and productivity in the Bay. T. testudinum from the Bay 
appears to be P limited and N saturated, even in the sparsest seagrass communities. 
This study was carried out from 1987 to 1989. 

1987 - 1989 

Strong, A. M., R. J. Sawicki, and G. T. Bancroft (1991) Effects of predator presence on the 
nesting distribution of white crowned pigeons in Florida Bay. Wilson Bull. . 103(3):415-25. 
From 1987-1989, surveys were conducted throughout Florida Bay, Card and Barnes 
Sounds, the southern portion of mainland Florida, and the mainline Keys south to Long 
Key to determine the breeding distribution of white-crowned pigeons ( Columba 
leucocephala). We found pigeons nesting on 88 of 169 keys over a wide range in Florida 
Bay, Card and Barnes Sounds, and in one location in the mainline Keys. Their nesting 
distribution appeared to be limited by the presence of raccoons ( Procyon lotor). Of the 
33 keys on which we found evidence of raccoons, only six had nesting white-crowned 
pigeons. Other potential nest predators did not seem to influence nesting distribution. In 
Florida, white-crowned pigeon breeding populations apparently are limited by the 
availability of nesting sites without raccoons. 

1987 - 1990 

Robblee, M. B., T. R. Barber, P. R. Carlson, M. J. Durako, J. W. Fourqurean, L. K. 
Muehlstein, D. Porter, L. A. Yarbro, R. T. Zieman, and J. C. Zieman (1991) Mass mortality 
of the tropical seagrass Thalassia testudinum in Florida bay (USA). Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. . 
71:297-9. 

This report documents the rapid and widespread mortality of the seagrass Thalassia 
testudinum Banks ex Konig (turtlegrass) in Florida Bay. More than 4,000 ha of seagrass 
beds have been completely lost in recurring episodes of mortality since the summer 
1987. An additional 23,000 ha have been affected to a lesser degree. Loss of T. 
testudinum, the dominant macrophyte species in this highly productive system, may 
affect the ecosystem function within the Bay as well as estuarine-dependent sport and 
commercial fisheries. A pathogenic protist related to the causal agent of the eelgrass 
wasting disease may be involved in the mortality and may place T. testudinum 
populations outside Florida Bay at risk. Environmental factors and chronic hypoxia of 
below-ground T. testudinum tissue may also contribute to the die-off. Blade density 
data of test beds in Johnson Key Basin collected from June 1988 to March 1990 are 
presented in the paper. 


1988 0 

Knight, C. D. (1988) Mechanical compaction of Recent carbonate sediments in Florida Bay. 
The Compass . 65(2): 111-15. 


315 





[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Mechanical compaction of a cross 
bank core from Florida Bay produced sedimentary features recognized in ancient fine¬ 
grained limestone. These features included: (1) reduction of sediment thickness by 40- 
50%, (2) creation of organic, wispy layers that mimic stylolites, (3) obliteration of 
identifiable marine grasses, (4) creation of packstone layers because of compaction of 
wackestone sediments, and (5) reorientation of fossils toward the horizontal. The end 
product was an artificial rock that resembled a biomicritic limestone. 


1988 0 

Knight, C. D. (1988) Pore-fluid chemistry and selected carbonate mudbanks and mangrove- 

fringed islands, Florida Bay. M. S. Thesis. Wichita State University, Wichita, KS. 236 pp. 
[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] By comparing Florida Bay water 
and carbonate interstitial pore-fluid Ca/CI, Mg/Cl, and Sr/CI ratios, was possible to 
infer if diagenesis was occurring in selected carbonate mudbanks (Cross Bank and Crab 
Key Bank) and mangrove-fringed islands (Bald Eagle and Crane Key) within the Bay. 
The Cross Bank pore-fluid ratios indicate that the bulk of the mudbank aragonite and 
high-magnesium calcite sediments have undergone little diagenetic change. The Bald 
Eagle pore-fluid ratios indicated the following: (1) high-magnesium calcite sediments 
and some of the lower island aragonite sediments have started to convert of low- 
magnesium calcite, (2) incipient phreatic cementation within the upper 1 - 3 ft, and (3) 
formation of protodolomite in the northern lake regions. Saturation calculations indicate 
that both the mudbank and island interstitial pore-fluids are supersaturated with 
respect to calcite and aragonite. The saturation profiles within the mudbanks and 
islands sediments can be attributed in part to the reduction of sulfate by heterophic 
bacteria in the process of oxidation of organic matter. Mechanical compaction of a 
Cross Bank core produced sedimentary features that included: (1) reduction of 
sediment thickness by 40 - 50%, (2) creation of organic wispy layers, (3) obliteration 
of identifiable marine grasses, (4) creation of packstone layers, and (5) reorientation 
of fossils toward the horizontal. 


1988 0 

Lyons, W. G. (1988) A review of Caribbean Acanthochitonidae (Mollusca: Polyplacophora) 
with descriptions of six new species of Acanthochitona Gray, 1821. Amer. Malacol. Bull. . 
6(1 ):79-1 14. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Nine previously described species 
of Acanthochitonidae are recognized in the region between Bermuda and the Caribbean 
coast of South America: Acanthochitona andersoni Watter, 1981; A. astrigera (Reeve, 
1847); A. balease Abbott, 1954 (+ A. elongata and A. interfissa, both Kaas, 1972); A. 
bonairensis Kaas, 1972; A. hemphilli (Pilsbry, 1893); A. pygmaea (Pilsbry, 1893); 
Choneplax lata (Guilding, 1829); Cryptoconchus floridanus (Dali, 1889). Four new 
species ( Acanthochitona lineata, A. roseojugum, A. worsfoldi, and A. zebra) are 
described from Florida, the Bahama Islands and the northern Caribbean; Acanthochitona 
ferreirai sp. nov. is described from Pacific coasts of Panama and Costa Rica. No 
subsequently collected specimens were seen of Acanthochitona spiculosa (Reeve, 
1847), originally described from the West Indies; A. spiculosa is considered a species 
inquirenda. Some specimens were collected in Florida Bay and the Florida Keys. 


1988 0 

Mackin, J. E., and R. C. Aller (1988) Dissolved boron production in biogenic sediments; 
patterns and causes. EOS. Transactions . 69(44): 1263-4. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Profiles of 
dissolved B vs depth were determined in short (-20 cm) and long (>100 cm) cores, 
taken at several sites in the carbonate sediments of Florida Bay. Boron concentrations 


316 




reached double the seawater value at depths >50 cm, in some cases. Highest B 
concentrations corresponded to high dissolved silica concentrations of >1 mM. Also, 
dissolved B and silica production rates, observed during anoxic sediment incubation 
experiments were directly related, showing a decrease with depth into the sediment. 
When the sediment was spiked with solid silicic acid, and pore waters rapidly achieved 
saturation with respect to amorphous silica (1.5 mM), dissolved B production was 
completely inhibited. These data imply that B production in these sediments is caused by 
dissolution of biogenic opal, the dominant silica-bearing phase. Laboratory experiments 
show that, when normalized to BET surface area, B consumption by solid silicic acid at 
pH 8 was comparable to that observed for clay minerals like kaolinite and smectite. The 
tendency for solid silicic acid to remove B from solution was lowered by nearly an 
order of magnitude when the pH was lowered to pH < 7. These data suggest that B 
production in biogenic sediments primarily reflects the large pH difference between 
overlying waters (pH = 8), where plankton grow and incorporate boron, and the 
sedimentary environment (pH < 7), where net dissolution of opaline plankton tests 
occurs and boron uptake is least favorable. 


1988 0 

Merriam, D. F. (1988) Some recent developments in the study of Florida Bay geology. The 

Compass . 65(30): 157-74. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Recent work in Florida Bay has 
kindled a resurgence of interest in this classic example of a dynamic lime-mud factory. 
History of work in the area can be subdivided into three periods: (1) early exploration 
and description (1850 - 1953), (2) general stratigraphy and sedimentology (1953 - 
1977), and detailed in-depth studies (1977 - present). Since 1977, much effort has 
gone into the study of generation, distribution, accumulation, and preservation of the 
lime mud on the drowned Miami Limestone (Pleistocene) surface during the past 5,000 
yrs. Sea-level change has been refined with additional data. Physical features in the 
Bay - islands, mudbanks, basins (lakes); chemical features - sediment and water; and 
biological features - fauna and flora, including sediment generation, have received 
considerable attention. Some work has been done on outline environmental sub divisions 
in the Bay by hydrographic, faunal, and sediment budget factors. Much new data have 
become available on the 'bedrock' geology with drilling of core holes in the Bay. 
Compaction and geochemical studies of the sediment have provided information on 
diagenetic changes during the lithification process. With the vast amount of data now 
available, it is possible to stimulate processes operational in the Bay and predict 
changes. Stimulation utilizing basin configuration, sea-level change, and sediment- 
generation rates show that the Bay is infilling from the west and north, and that sea- 
level change is the dominant factor in shaping the end result. Future research should be 
directed toward a better description and understanding of features in the Bay, their 
development, and subsequent change through time, and the Pleistocene and Recent 
geologic history with projections into the future of short-and long -range changes both 
natural and man-made. 


1988 0 

Ogden, J. C., and A. Sprunt (1988) Population trends and reproductive strategies by south 
Florida wading birds. Wildlife in the Everglades and Latin America Wetlands . 1985. G. W. 
Dalrymple, W. F. Loftus, and F. S. Bernardino (eds.). Florida International University, 
Miami, FL. 6. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This citation is a discussion of 
population trends and reproductive strategies by wading birds. Historical data is 
discussed. 


317 





1988 

Powell, G. V. N., and F. C. Schaffner (1991) Water trapping by seagrasses occupying bank 

habitats in Florida Bay. Est. Coastal Shelf Sci. . 32(1):43-60. 

Seagrasses, largely Thalassia testudinum, occupy habitats atop shallow carbonate 
mudbanks adjoining basins up to 3 m deep in Florida Bay. In this study, the phenomenon 
of water trapping whereby, during low tides, the seagrass meadow matrix retains a 
thin (< 20 cm) layer of water high on the bank top despite water levels in the adjoining 
basins being some 25-70 cm lower. The matrix slows water flow off the banks such 
that changes in the rate at which water recedes through time approximates a sigmoid 
function of water level. A meadow with a large seagrass standing crop (59 g dry mass 
m' 2 ) held a 17.4-cm layer of water atop the bank, while a meadow of lesser standing 
crop (less biomass per area, 130 g dry mass m' 2 ) that may have been facilitated by a 
topographical berm held just 3.3 cm of water. Similarly, on the bank slope the higher 
standing crop meadow held 10.4 cm of water while the bank slope meadow at the site 
with lesser standing crop held only 1.6 cm of water. Water trapping by seagrass can 
keep water on the banks for up to 8 hr during low tides, preventing desiccation of the 
bank, and thereby providing permanent habitat for a diverse community of epibenthic 
fishes and invertebrates. The water trapping phenomenon presumably enhances overall 
prey abundance and diversity, and regulates the temporal patterns of prey exposure to 
different types of predation risk, e.g. to wading birds vs. predatory fishes. This study 
took place in Murray Key and Sandy Key during 1988. 


1988 0 

Quinn, T. M., and D. F. Merriam (1988) Evolution of Florida Bay islands from a supratidal 

precursor: evidence from westernmost Bob Allen Key and Sid Key. J. Geol. . 96(3):375-82. 
[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Cores from the interior portions 
of westernmost Bob Allen Key and Sid Key document island nucleation from a supratidal 
precursor developed on a paralic peat deposit; whereas cores from exterior portions of 
these islands document development of marine mudbanks, progradation or colonization 
by mangroves, and supratidal sedimentation. The supratidal precursor beneath these 
islands consists of eroded remnants of coastal tidal flats or local topographic highs that 
remained supratidal throughout the Holocene sea-level rise. Sedimentologic and 
biostratigraphic evidence suggest erosion of mangroves by storms or inundation of 
mangroves by storm deposits is a common precursor to subsequent sediment 
aggradation on both islands. If other Florida Bay islands developed from mangrove 
colonization of marine mudbanks, then data from westernmost Bob Allen Key and Sid 
Key indicate that nucleation from a supratidal precursor and mangrove colonization of 
marine mudbanks are both viable mechanisms for island initiation. The absence of 
evidence of a supratidal nucleus beneath an island can result from (a) island migration 
and subsequent erosion or (b) insufficient sampling density. Stratigraphic data from 
Florida Bay are insufficient to discriminate between the relative importance of these 
two models of island evolution; we contend that any model of the evolution of Florida 
Bay islands must incorporate island nucleation from a supratidal precursor as a viable 
mechanism for island evolution. 


1988 

Smith, K. N., and W. F. Herrnkind (1992) Predation on early juvenile spiny lobsters 
Panulirus argus (Latreille): influence of size and shelter. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. EcoL 157:3- 
18. 

Juvenile spiny lobsters Panulirus argus (Latreille) from three behaviorally and 
ecologically distinct ontogenetic groups (algal, 5-15 mm carapace length; transitional, 
16-25 mm CL; and post-algal, 26-35 mm CL) were tethered in their characteristic 
shelters and on open substratum to evaluate size related differences in predation risk. 


318 





Field experiments performed during 1988 at two sites near Long Key, Florida Bay 
nursery habitat indicated that juveniles attained a partial size refuge from a suite of 
abundant algal lobster predators at about the time they emerged from settling habitat. 
Algal lobsters experience significantly decreased mortality by sheltering at night, 
thereby attaining a survival rate comparable to that of larger, older juveniles that 
forage nocturnally in the open. Diver surveys and limited net sampling revealed an 
array of lobster predators including octopus, portunid crabs, bonnethead sharks, nurse 
sharks, sting rays, gray snapper and toad fish, as well as general crustacean predators 
including bonefish and permit. High relative mortality of the smallest juveniles suggests 
that predation on the algal and early transitional phases was a potential bottleneck to 
population recruitment. 

1988, 1990 

Rude, P. D., and R. C. Aller (1991) Fluorine mobility during early diagenesis of carbonate 

sediment; an indicator of mineral transformations. Geochim. .Cosmochim. A. . 55(9)2491- 

509. 

The abundant occurrence of calcium carbonate minerals in marine sediment, their well- 
documented dissolution or precipitation during diagenesis, and their high F content 
suggest that carbonate mineral diagenesis may be an important influence on F behavior 
in marine sediment. To test this hypothesis, the geochemistry of F in shallow carbonate 
mudbank sediment of Florida Bay was examined. The F content of biogenic calcium 
carbonate in Florida Bay varies with mineralogy, positively correlates with the Mg 
content of calcite, and occurs in similar abundance to Sr (high-Mg calcite: F/Sr = 2.4 
mol/mol; aragonite: 0.53-0.79 mol mol' 1 ; low-Mg calcite: 0.22 mol mol' 1 . Models of 
porewater distributions, direct solute flux measurements, and reaction rate estimates 
over the upper 0 - 16 cm of sediment from Bob Allen Key Bank predict net fluxes out of 
the sediment of 170 nmol F m^d' 1 , 230 nmol Sr m^d* 1 , and 5.6 mmol Ca m' 2 d* 1 . The 
net solute flux ratio of F/Sr (0.71 mol mol' 1 ) is consistent with dissolution of aragonite 
or high-Mg calcite, but F/Ca and Sr/Ca ratios (28 mmol mol' 1 and 40 mmol mol' 1 , 
respectively) are 3-10 times that of biogenic carbonate sources. Selective dissolution 
of a high F and Sr content phase or, more likely (based on dissolution experiments), 
concurrent dissolution and reprecipitation of phases with different F and Sr contents 
account for this discrepancy. The loss of F, Sr, and Ca to fluorapatite precipitation, as 
predicted from a stoichiometric model of phosphate release, can be added to the 
transport reaction model predicted net fluxes. A resulting, more complete mass balance 
model incorporating both carbonate mineral reactions and fluorapatite formation yields 
total release estimates of F, Sr, and Ca of 770 nmol, 332 nmol, and 53 mmol nr 2 d' 1 , 
respectively. Calcium carbonate minerals apparently undergo transformation whereby 
34 mmol high-Mg calcite m' 2 d' 1 and 19 mmol aragonite rrr 2 d' 1 dissolve, and 46 mmol 
low-Mg calcite m' 2 d' 1 precipitates (ignoring other cations besides Ca). If no 
fluorapatite formation occurs, the required fluxes are that 23 mmol aragonite m' 2 d' 1 
dissolves and 3.4 mmol high-Mg calcite m' 2 d' 1 and 14 mmol low-Mg calcite m' 2 d' 1 
precipitate. Net loss of CaC0 3 from the deposit by dissolution is 6-7 mmol nrr 2 d' 1 (3% 
of the accumulation flux). The magnitude of these fluxes could cause significant 
mineralogical and chemical changes on rapid time scales in nearshore carbonate 
sediment. Fluorine is probably mobile in other carbonate deposits undergoing diagenetic 
alteration on short and longer time scales and is a powerful additional constraint on the 
rates and nature of carbonate mineral diagenesis. Sample collection for this study took 
place during 1988 and 1990. 

1988 - 1989 

Forcucci, D., M. J. Butler, and J. H. Hunt (1994) Population dynamics of juvenile Caribbean 

spiny lobster, Panulirus argus, in Florida Bay, Florida. Bull. Mar, Sci, . 54(3):805-18. 


319 




Despite a wealth of information on the growth and population dynamics of sub-adult and 
adult Caribbean spiny lobsters (Panulirus argus), there is far less information about 
younger juveniles under natural conditions. Growth and population dynamics of juvenile 
spiny lobsters (12 - 68 mm carapace length, CL) that were studied for 14 months 
(October 1988 - December 1989) are described using mark-recapture techniques in a 
hardbottom community in Florida Bay. The supply of postlarvae into the region in 1988 
and 1989 was monitored using Witham-type surface collectors in an effort to link peak 
periods of settlement of postlarvae with subsequent cohorts of juveniles. Field 
estimates of growth were the highest ever reported for this species, averaging 0.95 
mm CL wk' 1 (range: 0.35 - 1.25 mm CL wk* 1 for individuals 2 - 25 mm CL and 40 - 45 
mm CL, respectively). These results indicate that lobsters in some areas in Florida Bay 
can reach Florida's legal harvestable size (76 mm CL) 1.5 yrs after settlement. Season 
and lobster size had significant effects on growth rates; less growth occurred during 
the winter and among small individuals. Differences in growth among size classes 
resulted from changes in molt increment, whereas seasonal differences were a result 
of changes in intermolt interval. Using mark-recapture techniques, we estimate that 
the density of juvenile spiny lobsters <45 mm CL in this prime nursery habitat was 454 
ha' 1 , that the mean monthly probability of survival (reflecting actual mortality plus 
emigration) was 0.51, and that an average of 131 lobsters entered the population 
through re-recruitment and immigration each month. Recruitment of juveniles was 
significantly correlated (r = 0.83) with the supply of postlarvae to the region 8 months 
earlier. This relationship is stronger than was previously believed, and may only be 
manifested in areas with superior nursery habitat. Sampling took place in Fiesta Key 
from 1988 to 1989. 

1988 - 1989 

Ley, J. A., and C. Montague (1989) Influence on changes in freshwater flow to northeast 
Florida Bay on use of mangrove prop root habitat by fish. Pilot study submitted to the South 
Florida Water Management District. University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. 42 pp + 
appendices. 

The objective of this study was to measure quantitatively the fish communities in the 
fringing red mangrove habitat of Florida Bay over a broad range of mean salinity and 
salinity variation conditions and determine if corresponding fish community differences 
exist. To accomplish this objective, upstream, mid-bay and downstream stations 
across a salinity gradient were located in two tributary creek systems, Snook Creek in 
Joe Bay and Highway Creek in Long Sound, that carry freshwater to northeast Florida 
Bay. Comparisons were made between upstream and downstream over a period of 
transition from along dry season (winter and spring) to wet (summer and fall). Also 
sampled were sites in Little Blackwater Sound, Duck Key and Pelican Key. Eight 
methods were used to sample fish, three visual and five collecting methods. Overall, 
more than 43,000 fish and invertebrates were observed at 71 station/dates. All data 
is included in the citation. 

1988 - 1990 

Manire, C. A., and S. H. Gruber (1991) Effect of M-type tags on field growth of juvenile 
lemon sharks. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. . 120:776-80. 

Previous experience with M-type dart tags suggested that their implantation causes 
trauma and retards growth of small sharks. To test this hypothesis, a group of 76 
Juvenile lemon sharks Negaprion brevirostris of a precaudal length of l 9 ss than 80 cm, 
were marked with tiny (2 mm x 11 mm), passive integrated transponder (PIT) 
microtags, implanted intramuscularly. A second group of 563 lemon sharks of the same 
size range was marked with M-type dart tags, and both groups were released around 
Big Pine Key in Florida Bay. Growth of 10 recaptured fish with the M-type tag averaged 


320 



8.6 ± 2.34 (SD) cm yr 1 , compared with an average of 17.1 ± 4.25 cm yr' 1 for 10 
recaptured fish with PIT tags. Growth of the PIT-tagged group was significantly 
greater (P < 0.001 ) than that of the dart-tagged group (one-way ANOVA). It is 
recommend that biologists refrain from marking young or small sharks with M-type 
dart tags, especially for age and growth studies. This study took place from 1988 to 
1990. 

1988 - 1991 

Strong, A. M., and G. T. Bancroft (1994) Postfledging dispersal of white-crowned pigeons: 

implications for conservation of deciduous seasonal forests in the Florida Keys. 

Conservation Biol. . 8(3):770-9. 

From 1988 to 1991, we studied the postfledging dispersal of 31 radio-tagged white- 
crowned pigeons (Columba leucocephala) from three natal keys in Florida Bay. Immature 
birds dispersed from the natal keys at 26-45 days after hatching, and most young 
dispersed more than 20 km during the first 10 days postdispersal. Dispersing birds 
flew either north to the Florida mainland or east to northeast to the mainline Florida 
Keys. On the mainland, immature birds fed nearly exclusively within Everglades 
National Park or an adjacent state wildlife management area. On the mainline keys, 
white-crowned pigeons selectively used 5.01 20 ha forest fragments (p < 0.10) during 
the first 72 hr post dispersal. After this period, dispersing birds showed no preference 
among fragment size classes but used deciduous seasonal forests more frequently than 
suburban habitat (p < 0.10). The spatial pattern of dispersal on the mainline keys 
suggests that, during the first 72 hr postdispersal, whitecrowned pigeons are not able 
to reach northern Key Largo, where 69% of the deciduous seasonal forests are 
protected in state or federal ownership. Protection of large forest fragments, 
especially on southern Key Largo, should be a priority for maintaining populations of 
white-crowned pigeons These forests provide a series of ‘stepping stones’ that enable 
dispersing immature white-crowned pigeons to fly to more distant areas where habitat 
availability is less restricted. 


1989 

Baratta, A. M., and R. J. Fennema (1994) The affects of wind, rain, and water releases on 

the water depth and salinity of northeast Florida Bay. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3): 1072. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY] This study is an exploratory examination of factors affecting 
salinity levels and water depths in the northeast estuaries of Everglades National Park. 
Wind speed and direction, water releases through the C-111 canal system, and upland 
stage data were correlated with local rainfall, salinity, conductivity, depth, and water 
temperature measurements recorded at five stations located in the northeast Florida 
Bay estuaries. The statistical analysis of this data for the study year 1989, as well as 
individual events during that year, were used to formulate models of the C-111 
system. These models indicated that water depth varies directly and conductivity 
varies inversely with major C-111 water releases through gate structure 18-C. 
During other periods, regression results indicated that ground water stage, not C-111 
releases, was the major independent variable influencing estuary depth and salinity. 
Wind was found to increase estuary water depth when coming from the southern 
quadrants, and decrease water depth when coming from the north. With the exception of 
isolated events, local rainfall events during the year were not of the magnitude to have 
a significant influence on Bay depth or conductivity. 


1989 0 

Bert, T. M., and J. M. Stevely (1989) Population characteristics of the stone crab, Menippe 
mercenaria, in Florida Bay and the Florida Keys. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical 
Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Ma r. Sci.. 44(1):515. 


321 





[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Stone crabs 
are high level carnivores that exhibit sexual dimorphism and support an important 
commercial fishery in southwest Florida. Previous population surveys of stone crabs 
used remote sampling methods (trapping), whereas the information discussed in this 
paper on distribution and abundance, habitat use and reproductive patterns in western 
Florida Bay and the Florida Keys was obtained from quantitative diving surveys. 
Density of stone crabs was highest on the Gulf of Mexico side of the middle Keys and 
lowest on the Atlantic Ocean side of the upper Keys. Mean size of males was largest in 
western Florida Bay and smallest on the Gulf side of the Keys; mean size of females 
was smallest on the nearshore Atlantic side and largest in western Florida Bay and 
offshore on the Atlantic side. Density in the Keys shifted seasonally, being highest on 
the Atlantic side in spring and on the Gulf side in fall. Stone crabs excavate burrows 
under emergent hard substrate (rocks, large sponges, coral heads) or in seagrass 
(Thalassia testudinum) beds. Density was highest in mixed rock/seagrass habitat, 
where stone crabs occur in greater densities in holes under hard substrate than in 
seagrass burrows. Females apparently inhabit rock/seagrass preferentially (average 
male: female ratio 1:2), whereas males apparently prefer mixed rock/sand habitat 
(average ratio 3:1). Seasonal habitat occupancy changed between sexes and differed in 
proportion of habitat types available. On the Gulf side of the Keys, where proportions of 
seagrass and hard substrate were roughly equal, sex ratio shifted between habitats 
during the fall mating season. Males occurred principally in holes under hard substrate 
and females in burrows in adjacent seagrass beds. In western Florida Bay, where hard 
substrate constituted approximately 5% of available habitat, no difference in den 
habitat between sexes was noted, and individuals were distributed randomly. Gravid 
females occurred in disproportionately high numbers under hard substrate in mixed 
rock/seagrass habitat. Mating pairs occurred during spring and fall (principally April 
and October) throughout the study area. Mean size of mating males was significantly 
larger than that of all males, and mean size of mating females was significantly smaller 
than that of all females. Size of mating pairs was not correlated. Percent of spawning 
females was highest in August, when nearly all females were gravid. The population 
structure of stone crabs suggested territoriality and/or habitat dominance related to 
reproductive patterns. Seasonal use of den habitat type changed during mating and 
spawning seasons. Males may have competed for females, and mating habitat use varied 
on a sliding scale, dependent upon relative proportions of habitat types available (e.g., 
emergent hard substrate vs. seagrass). Dens excavated under hard substrate 
presumably require less energy to dig and were quite stable. Preference for that 
habitat by males during mating season and females during spawning season may be 
related to ease of den excavation and/or defense. 


1989 0 

Burke, C. D., and W. D. Bischoff (1989) Chemical differences among the shells of two 
euryhaline species of fossil ostracoda (Crustacea): a preliminary study. Trans. Kansas 
Acad. Sci. . 92(1-2):94-106. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Microfossils 
were extracted from a Florida Bay sediment core, and brackish and marine 
environments were interpreted on the basis of fossil ostracode and foraminiferid 
assemblages. A total of 48 hand-picked specimens of two species of euryhaline 
ostracodes ( Cyprideis salebrosa and Peratocytheridea setipunctata) were chemically 
analyzed for Ca, Mg, Sr, and Fe concentrations to determine the effect of salinity on 
bulk skeletal chemistry. Results indicate that adult specimens of the two species have 
similar Mg and Sr concentrations, but Fe is more concentrated in the shells of C. 
salebrosa. There are no differences in trace element concentrations in adult specimens 
from brackish or marine sections of the core. Nodose and non-nodose instars of P. 


322 




setipunctata contain similar concentrations of Sr, but greater concentrations of Mg and 
Fe than conspecific adults or adults of C. salebrosa. The enrichment of Mg and Fe in 
instars may be the result of rapid shell growth rate. Rapid carapace calcification may 
represent an adaptive strategy for survival that is maintained throughout the ontogeny 
of an individual. The samples were obtained from one core collected in Crab Key. 


1989 0 

Childers, D. L., J. Fourqurean, and G. V. N. Powell (1989) Intertidal seagrass banks as 
critical estuarine habitat: Evidence from a nutrient exchange study in Florida Bay, FL. Abs., 
10th Biennial Estuarine Research Conf., Baltimore, MD. 15. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY.NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] 
The transformation and intertidal exchange of nutrients and materials by intertidal 
seagrass banks represents an indirect habitat interaction with the associated estuarine 
water column. These processes were measured on a regularly-exposed 
Halodule/Thalassia bank in western Florida Bay over 5 tidal cycles using a 60 m 
through-low flume. Averages of significant fluxes are provided and compared with 
exchanges from flumes in Louisiana marsh systems. Fluxes from the Florida Bay 
seagrass bank were orders of magnitude greater than 1 for inorganic nitrogen, 1 - 2 
for POC and PON, and 3 for TSS. 


1989 0 

Cohen, A. D., and T. D. Davis (1989) Petrographic/botanical composition and significance of 

the peat deposits of Florida Bay. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. 

June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1):515-6. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The purpose of 
this study was to develop an understanding of the early vegetation and geologic history 
of Florida Bay by analysis of the petrographic/botanical compositions of its surface and 
subsurface peat deposits. Over 600 sites were investigated, of which 134 were found 
to contain some peat. Most of these peat deposits were basal layers overlain by marine 
carbonate-rich marls. A representative selection of these peat deposits was sampled 
and analyzed using piston coring and microtome-sectioning procedures. Peat types 
representing 13 different autochthonous depositional environments were identified. 
Three of these represented marine, mangrove-dominated settings ( Rhizophora Peat, 
Rhizophora-Avicennia Peat, and Avicennia Peat); two were transitional settings 
(Rhizophora Transitional Peat and Conocarpus Transitional Peat); and eight represented 
freshwater settings ( Mariscus [Cladium ]) Peat, Acrostichum-Mariscus Peat, 
Mariscus-Sagittaria Peat, Mariscus-Nymphaea Peat, Mariscus-Cephalanthus Peat, 
Cephalanthus Peat and Myrica-Persea-Salix Peat). The primary micropetrographic 
parameters used in defining each of the peat types and in reconstructing its 
environment of deposition were the abundances and types of: (1) botanically identifiable 
plant fragments; (2) plant decomposition products; (3) animal remains (such as sponge 
spicules, radiolaria, foraminifera, shell fragments and insect parts); and (4) mineral 
components (such as carbonates and pyrite). The identification of the freshwater peat 
types in all sites analyzed were especially significant because these types represent 
depositional settings that do not occur in Florida Bay today but are, however, presently 
forming on the mainland Everglades. The petrograph botanical evidence thus supports an 
hypothesis that the peat deposits of Florida Bay represent erosional remnants of a more 
extensive area of freshwater Everglades-type peat that occupied portions of the region 
before it was converted to Florida Bay by a transgressing sea. 


1989 0 

Cottrell, D. J. (1989) Holocene evolution of the coast and nearshore islands, northeast 
Florida Bay, Florida. Ph. D. Dissertation. University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL. 194 pp. 


323 



[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The comparative stratigraphy of 
the mainland coast and islands of northeastern Florida Bay shows that both islands and 
the present coastline initiated from paralic shoreline deposits during an earlier stage of 
the Holocene sea level rise. The present mainland coast is composed of 1.5 to 2 m of 
Holocene sediment over a shallowly submerged Pleistocene limestone surface. This 
build-up initiated from paralic peats and muds from which evolved two basic coastal 
landforms: an east-west trending coastal levee, and several narrow north-south 
trending peninsulas extending into Florida Bay. The coastal levee is characterized by 
basal paralic swamp and marsh sediments overlain by supratidal levee muds. These 
levee mud deposits represent stable, continuous shoreline development during the past 
2,500 yrs. Peninsulas, however, have resulted from supratidal sediments accreting 
over subtidal mud build-ups. Peninsulas have a westward-thinning wedge of paralic peat 
or marsh sediment at the base of their windward (eastern) margins. This wedge is 
interpreted as a remnant of the basal paralic deposit from which the peninsulas 
initiated. Windward shore erosion and leeward progradation have caused peninsulas to 
migrate westward across leeside subtidal deposits. Most of the offshore islands in 
northeastern Florida Bay have a wedge of paralic or marsh sediment at the base of 
their windward margins. Supratidal muds directly overlie this basal wedge along 
portions of the windward side of some islands. This sequence is identical to that of the 
coastal levees, and these portions of islands are interpreted as eroded sections of 
former coastal levees. On the windward margin of other islands, the basal paralic 
sediment wedge is overlain by subtidal sediments, which become thicker to the west, 
and are capped by supratidal muds which thin to the west. This indicates that the 
windward margins of islands, like the peninsulas, have eroded and the islands are 
migrating (prograding) westward. It is concluded that the position of early shorelines 
was defined by pre-existing drainage patterns produced by mangrove-bordered rills, 
along which swamp and marsh sediments accumulated. As the area flooded, these 
deposits persisted and evolved into thin, northwest-southeast trending mangrove 
peninsulas. Subtidal sediments accumulated adjacent to leeward shores, while 
windward shores eroded. With sea level rise and transgression, sections of the 
shoreline were breached, forming islands. These early islands continued to accrete 
leeward muds and erode their windward margins, resulting in the westward migration 
of islands from their point of inception. 


1989 0 

Cottrell, D. J. (1989) Holocene evolution of the northeastern coast and islands of Florida 

Bay. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 

44(1 ):51 6. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY, DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The 
comparative stratigraphy of the mainland coast and islands of northeastern Florida Bay 
showed that both the islands and the present coastline initiated from paralic shoreline 
deposits during an earlier stage of Holocene sea level rise. The present mainland coast 
is composed of 1.5 to 2 m of Holocene sediment over a shallowly submerged, 
Pleistocene limestone surface. This build-up initiated from paralic peats and muds from 
which evolved two basic coastal features: an east-west trending coastal levee and 
several narrow, north-south trending peninsulas extending into Florida Bay. The coastal 
levee is characterized by basal paralic swamp and marsh sediments overlain by 
supratidal levee muds. These levee mud deposits represent stable, continuous shoreline 
development during the past few thousand years. Peninsulas, however, have resulted 
from supratidal sediments accreting over subtidal mud build-ups. Peninsulas have, at 
the base of their windward (eastern) margins, a westward thinning wedge of paralic 
peat or marsh sediment. This wedge was interpreted as a remnant of the basal paralic 
deposit from which the peninsulas initiated. Windward shore erosion and leeward 


324 



progradation have caused peninsulas to migrate westward across leeside subtidal 
deposits. Most of the offshore islands in northeastern Florida Bay have a wedge of 
paralic or marsh sediment at the base of their windward margin. Supratidal muds 
directly overlie this basal wedge along portions of the windward side of some islands. 
This sequence is identical to that of the coastal levees, and these portions of islands are 
interpreted as parts of former coastal levees. On the windward margins of other 
islands, the basal paralic swamp and marsh sediment wedge is overlain by subtidal 
sediments, which become thicker to the west, and are capped by supratidal muds which 
thin to the west. This indicates that the windward margins of islands, like the 
peninsulas, have eroded and the islands are migrating (prograding) westward. It was 
concluded that the position of early shorelines was defined by pre-existing drainage 
patterns produced by mangrove-bordered rills, along which swamp and marsh 
sediments accumulated. As the area flooded, these deposits persisted and evolved into 
thin, northwest-southeast trending mangrove peninsulas. Subtidal sediments 
accumulated adjacent to leeward shores, while windward shores eroded. With sea level 
rise and transgression, sections of the shoreline levees and peninsulas were breached, 
forming islands. These early islands continued to accrete leeward muds and erode their 
windward margins, resulting in the westward migration of islands from their point of 
inception. 


1989 0 

Davies, T. D., and A. D. Cohen (1989) Composition and significance of the peat deposits of 

Florida Bay. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. 

Sci. . 44(1 ):387-98. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING PRIOR TO 1980 BUT UNKNOWN.] Late Holocene vegetation and 
geologic history of Florida Bay is elucidated by analysis of the petrographic/botanical 
compositions of its surface and subsurface peat deposits. Over 600 sites were 
investigated, of which 134 were found to contain some peat. Cores were obtained in 
Ninemile Bank, Spy Key - Panhandle Key Bank, Joe Kemp Key, Cluett Key, Jim Foot 
Key, Samphire Key, Man-of-War Key, Shell Key, Panhandle Key, Spy Key, Russell Key, 
Eagle Key, Crane Key and Pigeon Key. Most of these peat deposits were overlain by 
marine carbonate-rich marls. A representative selection of these peat deposits was 
sampled and analyzed using piston coring and microtome-sectioning procedures. Peat 
types representing 12 different depositional environments were identified. Three of 
these represent marine, mangrove-dominated settings (Rhizophora Peat, Rhizophora- 
Avicennia Peat, and Avicennia Peat); two are transitional settings (Rhizophora 
Transitional Peat and Conocarpus Transitional Peat); and seven represent freshwater 
settings ( Uariscus [Cladium] Peat, Acrostichum Peat, Acrostichum-Mariscus Peat, 
Mariscus-Nymphaea Peat, Mariscus-Cephalanthus Peat, Cephalanthus Peat, and 
Myrica-Persea-Salix Peat). The properties used in defining each peat type and in 
reconstructing its environment of deposition were the abundances and types of: (1) 
identifiable plant fragments, (2) plant decomposition products, (3) animal remains 
(such as sponge spicules, radiolaria, foraminifera, shejl fragments, and insect parts), 
and (4) mineral components (such as carbonates and pyrite). The identification of the 
freshwater peat types at all sites analyzed is especially significant because these types 
represent depositional settings that do not occur in Florida Bay today but are presently 
forming on the mainland in the Everglades. The evidence thus supports the hypothesis 
that the peat deposits of Florida Bay represent erosional remnants of a more extensive 
area of freshwater Everglades-type peat that occupied portions of this region before it 
was converted to Florida Bay by a transgressing sea. [This study was also presented 
in: Cohen, A. D., and T. D. Davis (1989) Petrographic/botanical composition and 
significance of the peat deposits of Florida Bay. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical 
Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1 ):515-6. Abstract only.] 


325 





1989 0 

Durako, M. J. (1989) Morphoanatomical characteristics and recovery potential of Thalassia 
testudinum in sites affected by die-back in Florida Bay. Abstracts 10th Biennial Estuarine 
Research Conf., Baltimore, MD. 22. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] 
Morphoanatomical analyses of Thalassia ramets collected from 3 basins affected by 
die-back in Florida Bay revealed significant temporal and spatial variability. Short- 
shoot and rhizome apex densities, maximum leaf lengths and widths, shoot-specific and 
bottom-specific leaf areas significantly decreased along a gradient from healthy beds to 
die-back patches. Mean numbers of leaf scars and leaves per short-shoot significantly 
increased along this same gradient during summer; surviving short-shoots within die- 
back patches were characteristically solitary. However, in November, the mean leaf 
scar pattern was reversed. Ten percent of the short-shoots collected had new rhizome 
apices, and up to 40% of the short-shoots in die-back and dying fringe samples 
exhibited a novel branching pattern. 


1989 0 

Galli, G. (1989) Is Holocene storm-generated stratification in Florida Bay a reflection of 
solar storm cycles? Palae o geogr.. Pa laeoclimataL, P alaapecol., 76:169-85. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] A descriptive analysis of 
surficial sediments of Crane Key showed that the sediments consist of storm layers 
(winter storm and hurricane deposits) and algal laminated sediments. Storm layers are 
riddled with the following types of cavities: gas escape vugs, dissolution vugs, 
burrows, rootholes, and cryptalgal vugs. Structures and sediment types are arranged 
into a 15-cm thick thickening-upward, storm-generated sequence which formed in 
approximately 100 yrs under a deepening trend. Periodograms of sea level variations 
match the frequency distribution of strong intensity storms which occurred in south 
Florida since the beginning of this century. The calculated recurrence time of strong 
storms (10 ± 3 yr) and the time interval of formation of the sequence (100 ± 25 yr) 
are probably a response of climatic parameters to short period (11 -yr) and longer- 
period (90 - 100-yr) cycles of solar activity. Comparison with the ancient record 
shows analogous dm-thick storm generated sequences probably linked to solar cycles 
and 100-yr sea level rises. 


1989 0 

Livingston, R. J. (1989) Ecosystem research and resource management: application to 

Florida Bay. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44:517. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY.] There are three basic components concerning research that is 
ultimately to be used for management purposes: (1) the design of an interdisciplinary 
research product, (2) adequate computational facilities for continuous analysis of data, 
and (3) the application of the results to management problems. There is considerable 
disagreement and controversy concerning how to carry out comprehensive, 
interdisciplinary programs that are designed to generate information that can 
ultimately form the basis of predictive models. Spatially, most coastal areas are 
subject to important changes associated with land runoff, consequently, a system such 
as Florida Bay is closely dependent on freshwater runoff that has its origin hundreds of 
miles away. Such systems also have close ecological ties with offshore areas as 
centers of spawning for many dominant estuarine populations. Temporal variation has 
many scales, from hourly changes to interannaul periodicity. Different physical and 
chemical processes and the various levels of biological organization all operate within 
the various families of spatial and temporal scales so the complexity of cause and 
effect mechanisms is considerable. Various processes, including productivity, energy 


326 




distribution via food-web relationships, and diverse multispecies interactions at the 
population and community levels, form the basis of ecosystem-level changes that 
remain imcomprehensible when subjected to limited sampling efforts. Comparative 
studies indicate that individual estuarine and coastal systems are unique in terms of 
how these common factors interact and respond to natural and anthropogenous 
disturbance; hence, another level of complexity is added via problems of interpretation 
and extrapolation of research results. Without adequate, long-term, interdisciplinary 
studies, properly scaled to answer questions not yet asked, resource management 
becomes a haphazard, crisis-oriented process that ultimately has one final outcome; 
the reduction or loss of the natural resource base as a result of the cumulative impacts 
of various anthropogenic activities. Even if the scientific data base is adequate for an 
understanding of basic system functions, and even if the data are held in a form that 
facilitates appropriate analysis on a continuing basis, there is no guarantee that the 
data will be applied to questions involving long-term planning and resource management. 
It is at this stage (i.e., the application of basic scientific findings to complex resource 
management questions) that most important unresolved problems remain in terms of 
management initiatives. A major ecosystem, such as Florida Bay, is composed of 
multitudinous factors that resemble the individual strands of a fine tapestry; in this 
case, the tapestry changes continuously in an episodic, kaleidoscopic fashion. Most 
ecosystem research is carried out in patchwork-quilt fashion, with 6 months of data 
here, 12 months of data there, in the hope that someone can stick it all together and 
make sense out of the results. The problems that result from this approach reflect the 
basic differences between a patchwork quilt and a fine tapestry. In terms of money and 
time spent for research, the patchwork quilt approach is both inefficient and 
scientifically unsatisfactory. This method also encourages the mindless generation of 
monitoring data, the so-called 'sorcerer's apprentice* approach to ecological studies. 
There is ample evidence that the patchwork-quilt proponents, who dominate in today's 
scientific world, are in part responsible for the wholesale deterioration of natural 
ecosystems, both in Florida, a rapidly developing state, and the nation as a whole. The 
reason is that, although a scientific database by itself cannot solve the important 
environmental problems of the world, without such data and an enlightened use of the 
results, habitat deterioration becomes a certainty. 


1989. 0 

Ludwig, G. M., J. E. Skjeveland, N. A. Funicelli, H. E. Bryant, D. A. Meineke, L. J. Mengel, 
and M. R. Dewey (1989) Survival of Florida Bay fish tagged with internally anchored 
spaghetti tags. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. 
Mar. Sci. . 44(1 ):518. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY, DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Experimental 
studies to determine the short term survivability of tagged white (Mugil curema) and 
striped mullet ( M. cephalus), spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus), and gray snapper 
(Lutjanus griseus), captured in the marine waters or Everglades National Park were 
performed. Survival was found to be related to the method of fish capture. Striped 
mullet mortality rates were: 16% for fish caught by commercial purse seines; 33.3% 
for those caught by gill nets; and 0% for those caught by trammel nets. White mullet, 
which were all caught with gill nets, had mortality rates of 77.4% while gray snapper 
was 0%. Mortality of spotted seatrout was 45.% for fish caught in nets and 5% for 
fish caught by angling. 


1989 0 

Merriam, D. F. (1989) Overview of the geology of Florida Bay, review of recent 
developments. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull, 
Mar. Sci, 44(1):519. 


327 




[ABSTRACT ONLY, DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Florida Bay is 
a shallow-water, triangular-shaped area of about 1,000 square miles wedged in 
between the south Florida mainland and the string of elongated Florida Keys. Protected 
by the Keys mainland, it is open to the southwest into the Gulf of Mexico, but the open- 
water effects on the Bay are dampened by the anastomosing mudbanks, which cordon 
the Bay into a series of internal basins (or 'lakes’ as known locally). Major changes in 
the Bay usually occur during severe storms (hurricanes). Because of its geographic 
position, climate and geological factors, carbonate sediments are generated in the Bay 
which is a modern carbonate factory). Its accessibility and conditions make it a popular 
modern analog for understanding ancient sediments in the rock record deposited under 
similar conditions. The study of the Bay can be divided into three segments: (1) early 
exploration and description (1850 - 1953); (2) general stratigraphy and sedimentology 
(1953 - 1977); and (3) detailed, in-depth studies (1977-). The first studies of 
southern Florida, commencing in the mid-19th century, were mainly exploratory and 
descriptive. The modern reef tract attracted attention and interest but mostly in 
regard to the flora and fauna because they were different from those in other parts of 
the United States. Such workers as Louis Agassiz and T. Wayland Vaughan drew 
attention to the importance of the area. Others, including C. W. Cooke and S. Mossom, J. 
H. Davis, S. Sandford, E. M. Thorp and G. Matson and F. G. Clapp, were concerned with 
the general geology of the area. These broad-brush studies were instrumental in 
understanding the setting and preparing the way for additional work. The second period 
is one of careful and thoughtful studies of stratigraphic and sedimentologic processes 
and descriptions of the features in the Bay and its development during the past 5,000 
yrs. R. Ginsburg did his pioneering work in the early to mid-1950’s, followed shortly 
by D. Scholl's work. Such workers as M. Ball, P. Enos, D. Gorsline, R. Halley, J. E. 
Hoffmeister, M. Lloyd, G. Lynts, G. Multer, R. Perkins, G. Shinn, D. Steinker, K. 
Stockman, J. Turney and H. Wanless were active beginning in the mid to late 1960's. 
This period culminated with publication of the now classic paper in 1977 by P. Enos and 
R. Perkins on 'Quaternary Depo-positional Framework of South Florida" (Geological 
Society of America Memoir 147). Since 1977 much effort has gone into refining the 
concepts on generation and accumulation of the calcareous mud in the Bay and its 
preservation in relation to sea level changes. Geochemistry of the sediments has 
received much attention. Island stratigraphy has been the focus of other studies along 
with the mechanisms for distribution of the geologic, biologic and chemical parameters 
of the Bay. Pleistocene bedrock cores have been taken to determine the distribution of 
the Miami Limestone facies. In addition simulation studies of the Bay are underway 
utilizing available data. Groups currently working on the problems are located at 
Alberta Geological Society, University of Connecticut, Lehigh University, University of 
Miami, University of South Florida, Wichita State University and the US Geological 
Survey at Fisher Island in Miami and at Denver, CO. Many individuals in the United 
States and in Europe are working on various problems at different locations in the area. 
This 'Symposium on Florida Bay,' sponsored by the US National Park Service, 
Everglades National Park and the University of Miami, Rosenstiel School of Marine and 
Atmospheric Science, is an excellent opportunity for an update and exchange of 
information in regard to the latest developments on research of Florida Bay and 
vicinity. 


1989 0 

Merriam, D. F., J. M. Fuhr, R. V. Jenkins, and P. J. Zimmerman (1989) Pleistocene bedrock 
geology of Florida Bay, the Keys, and the Everglades. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44:519-20. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY.] The Late Pleistocene Miami Limestone of southern Florida 
comprises three facies: bryozoan, coral, and oolite. The coral facies of Miami is 
termed the Key Largo Limestone and the oolitic facies the Miami Oolite (= Key West 


328 



Oolite). The three facies interfinger locally and are approximately 130,000 years old 
BP. The Florida Keys are an archipelago of elongate coral limestone islands, near 
parallel to the present offshore reef, and extend from near Miami southwest to Bahia 
Honda Key, and continue under water as far west as the Dry Tortugas. The southern 
Keys from Big Pine Key to Key West consist of oolite facies with a northwestern trend, 
which is approximately at right angles to the trend of the reef and which reflects the 
old Pleistocene tidal influence of their development. To the north on the mainland, the 
oolitic facies occupies mot of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge from Boca Raton to a point 
southwest of Homestead and extends as a thin sheet several miles into the Everglades. 
The reminder of the exposed Miami Limestone is termed the bryozoan facies and covers 
an area of approximately 3,000 sq. mi from the southern coast of Florida into the 
Everglades. Diamond-drill cores taken of the bedrock in Florida Bay reveal that the 
bryozoan facies underlies most of the Bay, but in a more complicated manner than 
previously suspected. Patch reef(s) occur locally in the Bay; one has been identified 
just east of East Key about 45+ ft thick. In other parts of the Bay, freshwater 
limestone has been observed. The bryozoan facies is composed of peletal packstones and 
grainstones and is so named because locally up to 70% of the rock may be composed of 
colonies of the bryozoan Schizoporella floridana. After bryozoans, pellets are the most 
abundant constituent; other important constituents are miliolids, peneroplids and ooids, 
and locally the unit contains burrows and calcareous worm tubes. The facies of the 
Miami Limestone was deposited on a broad, shallow-water marine platform where 
water depths probably did not exceed 30 ft. Long, linear, low topographic highs occur 
on the Miami Limestone in Everglades National Park. Known locally as "rock reefs," 
their length ranges from 8 to 15 mi, width from 30 to 60 ft, and height up tp 3 ft. 
Morphologically they are similar to the carbonate mudbanks accumulating today in 
Florida Bay. 


1989 0 

Merriam, D. F., and T. M. Quinn (1989) Recent sediments of Bald Eagle Key and implications 

for Florida Bay island stratigraphy. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. 

June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1):520. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY, DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Bald Eagle Key 
is low-lying, saucer-shaped, mangrove-fringed island in Florida Bay. Located in 
Everglades National Park between easternmost Bob Allen and Captain Key and south or 
Russell Key, it is one of approximately 170 such islands in the Bay. Most of the islands 
are connected by a series of narrow anastomosing mudbanks. In general the islands are 
larger in the northeastern part of the Bay adjacent to the mainland and the mudbanks 
are thicker and wider in the western part fronting on the Gulf of Mexico. The islands 
are composed of carbonate mud that has accumulated over the Miami Limestone 
(Pleistocene) "bedrock" during sealevel rise throughout the past 5,000 yrs. The 
"normal" stratigraphic succession (A) of sediments forming the islands consists of: (a) 
freshwater marl, (b) mangrove peat, (c) shelly marine carbonate mud, (d) sort, marine 
carbonate mud usually with live mangrove roots, and (e) a cream-colored flaky 
supratidal carbonate mud (locally laminated). On other islands, another sequence (B) of 
events consists of only: (a), (b) and (e). Events (a) through (c) have been interpreted 
as transgressive, and events (d) to (e) regressive. Interpretation of sequence (A) is 
that of islands formed by mangrove colonization of marine mudbanks; whereas for (B) 
islands nucleated from a supratidal precursor. Both mechanisms are equally viable for 
island initiation. If marine mudbanks form subsequent to island nucleation from a 
supratidal precursor, then the absence of evidence of a supratidal nucleus beneath an 
island can result from: (1) island migration and subsequent erosion, or (2) an 
insufficient sampling density. Twenty-nine soft sediment cores were taken on the 0.2 
by 0.4 m wide island. Sediment thickness ranged from about 7 to 8 ft with a 1- to 18-in 


329 



thick peat present under the eastern side. The island developed over a slight 
topographic low on the microkarstic bedrock surface. The sediment sequence is of type 
(A) with all units from (a) through (e) present. The eastern side of the island is firm 
and appears erosional, whereas the western side is soft mud and appears depositional. 
From this evidence and distribution of sediments, it is interpreted that the island is 
migrating westward. 


1909 0 

Merriam, D. F., S. Sengupta and C. E. Sorensen (1989) Definition and implications of the 

subenvironments of Florida Bay. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44:520. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY.] The subenvironments of Florida Bay have been defined in several 
different ways. Salinity levels have been used to subdivide the Bay into hydrographic 
zones; molluscan assemblages have been used to recognize subenvironments, and the 
net sediment budget used to arrive at sediment accumulation zones. Water properties 
such as salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen, dissolved carbon dioxide, turbidity, Ca, and Mg 
along with sedimentological, geochemical, and biological properties of the sediments 
were analyzed statistically to outline four sub-environments, the three peripheral ones 
- Northern, Gulf, Atlantic - and an Interior restricted zone. Because the water and 
sediment parameters are changing constantly, the boundaries of the different 
subenvironments fluctuate reflecting the dynamic conditions in the Bay. The water 
properties, particularly susceptible to change, show a distinct reorientation from 
winter to summer reflecting the change from the dry to wet season. These changes are 
attributed to various causes chief among them being wind direction, nutrient supply, 
rainfall, water circulation, and basin configuration. Water properties of salinity, pH, 
dissolved C0 2 and 0 2 , and turbidity were subjected to trend-surface analysis to 
determine the regional pattern of values for each variable. Salinity is normal marine in 
the center of the Bay, decreasing to brackish conditions along margins where the 
circulation is more restricted. Dissolved C0 2 is higher in the central part of the Bay, 
but dissolved C0 2 decreases towards the center of the Bay as does the pH and turbidity. 
In general, the salinity of C0 2 of the water decreases as 0 2 , pH and turbidity increase. 
These conditions are the result of a complex interplay of basin configuration, 
circulation, dilution and pollution, animal activity and vegetation, light, temperature, 
agitation, sediment supply and many other variables. The Northern subenvironment, 
which is in proximity to the mainland, and is characterized by a freshwater influx from 
the Everglades. Depth ranges from 2 - 4 ft, sediment grain size is from fine to coarse 
sand. Shallow regions are covered with vegetation, whereas the deeper areas are 
barren. Laurencia and Thalassia are abundant and the water usually is turbid and 
brackish. Gastropods and pelecypods comprise the fauna. Salinity is high in the Interior 
Subenvironments because of restricted circulation. Water depth ranges from 3 - 8 ft, 
and sediment grain size from medium to coarse sand. Although much of the substracte 
is bare, Thalassia and Penicillus, and other forms of algae are abundant locally. Because 
of the restricted circulation and limited nutrient supply, the flora and faunal diversity 
are low. The Gulf and Atlantic Subenvironments are regions of deeper waters (average 
7 ft) and the sediment grain size is dominantly coarse sand. A high floral and faunal 
diversity is observed because of an open tidal exchange with the Gulf and Atlantic 
Ocean. Thalassia is abundant along with Laurencia, Penicillus, Udotea, Halimedia and 
other forms of algae, and Porites, sponges and shrimp mounds. 


1989 0 

Mukherki, K. K. (1989) Holocene development of Sandy Bank in the western Florida Bay. 
Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 
44(1): 521-2. 


330 




[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Sandy Bank is 
located at the extreme western edge of the Florida Bay facing the open shelf of the Gulf 
of Mexico. The study focuses on the key features of mudbank development based on the 
nature of sediments, internal framework of sedimentary units, distribution of floral 
and faunal communities and 14 C dates. The sediments were primarily carbonates (90- 
98%) with siliciclastic components constituting 2 - 10% of the sediment. The sediment 
accumulated on a subaerially weathered, fairly irregular Pleistocene bedrock surface 
with a raised seaward margin. Holocene sediments formed a shallow submerged bank 
rising 1 - 2.5 m above the rocky submarine floor. The bank profile was gently 
asymmetric with a flat interior becoming steeper seaward. The entire bank surface 
was carpeted with marine grass. The central part, which is nearly exposed at low tide, 
was colonized by Thalassia only. A mixed grass community of Thalassia and 
Syringodium formed the bank edges with progressive decline in Thalassia at depth. The 
sediments were a mixture of mud (<0.062 mm) and shells (>0.062) with the proportion 
of mud in the sediments ranging from 10-98%. Mollusks were the chief skeletal grains, 
and green algae, sponge spicules, foraminifera, radiolari, etc., made up a maximum of 
5% of the total shell fraction. Mudstones, wackestone and packstone were the principal 
sediment types, representing approximately 45%, 40% and 15% of the bank thickness. 
On the bank surface, mudstone was restricted to the central Thalassia Zone and 
Wackestone was associated with the mixed grass bottom community. Often mudstones 
exhibited weakly defined, very fine lamination. Animal burrows, plant roots rhizomes 
were common organic structures in the muddy bank sediment. Mollusks defined three 
distinct surface zones of brackish (Northern), marine (Gulf), and mixed (Transitional) 
subenvironments. The mosaic of surface environments could be recognized throughout 
the upper half to two thirds of the bank's internal stratigraphy. Sediment cores 
revealed an ascending sequence of dark brown to black peat; pale-orange 
Pseudocyrena-Batillaria mudstone with interlaminated peat; Pseudocyrena- 
Anomalocardia packstone; mangrove and/or Thalassia (rare) mudstone; 
Anomalocardia-Transennella packstone; and a highly bioturbated wackestone and/or 
mudstone with frequent interbedded, thick (2-4 cm) Transennella packstones. The 
internal stratigraphy indicated a progressive vertical change in the depositional 
environment from a semi-restricted coastal swamp through open brackish Bay to the 
recent nearly marine condition. 14 C dates on basal peat; Pseudocyrena-Anomalocardia 
packstone; Anomalocardia-Transennella packstone; and a Transennella packstone in the 
top most unit yielded average ages of 5,213, 4,290, 2,690 and 1,190 yrs 
respectively. Layer cake stacking of 14 C dated units and their lateral persistence 
strongly suggested accumulation of carbonate sediment over the entire mudbank area 
throughout the Holocene. Ubiquitous Thalassia free packstone underlying root and 
rhizome bearing mudstone signifies a temporary killing of grass by the sudden spread of 
coarse shell debris on the bank due to a temporary rise in the sea level during an 
exceptionally intense physical regime. The nature, thickness and site of the mudstones 
appear to have been influenced by the post-agitation rate of settling of suspended fines 
from the water column, the vigor of recolonization and the density of Thalassia on the 
newly established substrate. The overall sediment accumulation rate on the bank varied 
between 27 - 75 cm per 1,000 yrs. However, the central and thickest bank sequence 
reflects a systematic increase in sedimentation rate from the base to the top. The basal 
peat marked the slowest accretion rate of 13 cm per 1,000 yrs and the brackish water 
mangrove- Thalassia mudstone showed a growth rate of 31 cm per 1,000 yrs. This 
increase was attributed to trapping of fine sediment by mangrove roots and sparse 
Thalassia community. The uppermost mudstone, wackestone intercalated units had the 
maximum growth (65-88 cm per 1,000 yrs) due to an intense growth of grass on the 
bank under nearly marine conditions. It is suggested that the Pleistocene bedrock played 
a major role in the initial trapping of fine sediments in protected areas behind the 
weakly raised seaward edge. Later, the spread of marine grass influenced the bank 


331 


development and a complex, very active phase of bank growth look place following the 
most vigorous colonization by marine grass at 2,690 BP. 14 C ages of the basal peat 
provided indication of southward progradation of the bank. 


1989 0 

Porter, D., and L. K. Muehlstein (1989) The role of fungi and slime molds in the die-back of 
Thalassia testudinum in Florida Bay. Abs., 10th Biennial Estuarine Research Conf., 
Baltimore, MD. 65. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] 
The wide spread die-back of turtle grass, Thalassia testudinum, in Florida Bay is 
characterized by once continuous meadows of turtle grass which have either been 
completely lost or are interspersed at frequent intervals by irregular patches of bare 
sediment. The live plants near the die-back areas have many blackened streaks and 
spots on their leaves. These necrotic regions are symptoms of a disease which may be 
a direct cause of the disease. It was found that an undescribed species of the marine 
slime mold, genus Labyrinthula, is the only eukaryotic microorganism associated with 
the necrotic leaf pieces at a much higher frequency than from green leaf pieces. The 
relationship between seagrass disease and Labyrinthula is not unexpected. A different 
species of Labyrinthula has been demonstrated to be the cause of the wasting disease of 
eelgrass, Zostera marina. 


1989 0 

Powell, G. V. N., J. G. Holmquist, and S. M. Sogard (1989) Physical and environmental 
characteristics of Florida Bay with emphasis on mud banks. Symp. on Florida Bay: A 
Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1):522. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The mudbanks 
of Florida Bay exert a disproportionate influence on the ecosystem as they represent 
most of the Bay's sediment, support half the Bay's seagrass standing crop, provide 
almost all of the Bay's wading birds' foraging habitat, and function as barriers to 
circulation, dividing the area into subenvironments. The banks were found to be 
basically flat-topped with gently sloping sides that graded into basins. The prevailing 
northeasterly winds resulted in distinct sheltered and exposed bank sides, the former 
with fine sediment and a high proportion of organics, and the high energy, exposed sides 
with coarser sediment and low organic content. Bay water levels were highest in fall. 
Lunar tidal flux was directly related to access to open ocean for any given site. Water 
levels also demonstrated some degree of wind-dependency at all sites, but particularly 
at those without pronounced lunar influence. Although water levels on narrow banks 
tracked those of basins, one 2 km-wide bank retained a lens of water at low tide. Bank 
temperatures ranged from 7.5°C to 37.0°C and demonstrated daily ranges of 4.5°C and 
up to 15°C, in contrast to basin ranges of 1.2°C. These physical characteristics shape 
Florida Bay's character by affecting plant and animal community structure and defining 
3 distinct ecological periods. The banks are the stage for complex interaction of 
physical forces. Much of this interplay would be attenuated in the deeper grassbeds that 
have been the subject of most previous studies. 


1989 0 

Robblee, M. B. (1989) Changes in benthic fauna associated with an extensive seagrass 
die-off in western Florida Bay. Abs., 10th Biennial Estuarine Research Conf., Baltimore, 
MD. 69. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] 
Seagrasses, principally Thalassia testudinum, have experienced extensive die-off in 
western Florida Bay since the summer of 1987. Die-off has resulted in areas of 
complete canopy loss ranging from several square meters to hundreds of hectares. In a 


332 



few instances, Halodule wrightii has replaced turtle grass as the dominant seagrass 
after die-off. Currently, stations sampled quantitatively for pink shrimp, careidean 
shrimp, and benthic fish prior to seagrass die-off are being resampled to evaluate 
impacts on shrimp and fish abundance and species composition as well as differences in 
shrimp and fish relationships to grass canopy structure. Western Florida Bay, a major 
nursery ground, is possibly the principal nursery ground for the Tortugas pink shrimp 
fishery. It is likely that seagrass die-off on the scale being seen in Florida Bay will 
seriously impact its nursery function. 


1989 0 

Ryan, J. D., F. G. Lewis, and S. J. Schropp (1989) Metal and nutrient concentrations in 

Florida Bay sediments. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. 

Bull. Mar. ScL 44(1):523. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY, DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Geochemical 
conditions of bays and estuaries can be determined by analyzing bottom sediments, 
which comprise a reservoir reflecting present, as well as historic inputs to these 
coastal environments. For naturally occurring substances (e.g., metals and nutrients), 
however, an interpretive problem arises in distinguishing an anthropogenic contribution 
to the natural fraction. Using two interpretive tools developed for coastal Florida, 
metal (Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Mn and Zn) and nutrient (total organic carbon, total Kjeldahl 
nitrogen and total phosphorus) concentrations were assessed for sediments from a 
variety of habitats in Florida Bay (i.e., seagrass beds, mangroves and soft-bottom 
unvegetated areas). Nutrient data were collected seasonally, while metals data were 
obtained only once. Results were compared with data from several other pristine 
coastal environments of South Florida to attempt to establish background ranges of 
these constituents for the lower peninsula of the State. Metal and nutrient levels in 
Florida Bay were very low and typical of those reported for clean carbonate sediments. 


1989 0 

Shaw, A. B. (1989) Distribution of mollusks in sediments of Florida Bay and reef tract. 

Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 

44(1 ):523. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY, DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Collections of 
mollusks from bottom sediment samples of Florida Bay and the adjoining reef tract 
were classified into 9 major biofacies or assemblages, 5 minor and 4 subfacies. Most 
were recognizable by the dominant taxon (i.e., the most abundant taxon in the sample). 
The biofacies were diagnosed so they could be used in the field. Salinity patterns 
seemed to influence the distribution of the major biofacies in the interior of the bay, 
but the correspondence was not rigid, presumably because of fluctuations in salinity 
both seasonally and from year to year. Bathymetry was more closely correlated with 
the distribution of some of the biofacies, although the total range of depths within the 
bay was not large. 


1989 0 

Snedaker, S. C. (1989) Overview of ecology of mangroves and information needs for 
Florida Bay. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. 
SsL, 44(1 ):341-7. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The mangrove forest areas 
bordering Florida Bay have provided research data and information which have formed 
the bases both for conservation laws and for the advances in mangrove research at 
other laboratories throughout the world. In this regard, the structural diversity of 
Florida Bay mangroves has been reasonably documented, but little research has been 
done on functional diversity, particularly as it relates to the nearshore estuarine flora 


333 






and fauna. It was postulated that the quantity, quality and timing of fluxes of dissolved 
organic matter from different mangrove forest types may have a significant regulatory 
or control role in the structure and functioning of estuarine populations. This 
postulation focuses on a new area in chemical ecology which could lead to important 
new research findings on the interrelationships between mangrove forest habitats and 
the biological organization of estuarine communities. 


1989 0 

Tagett, M. G. (1989) Stratigraphy and dynamic growth of a Holocene carbonate mudbank 

complex: Dildo Key Bank. M. S. Thesis. Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric 

Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL. 266 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Detailed lithofacies and faunal 
analysis of 121 cores demonstrated that Dildo Key mudbank, one of three large 
mudbanks separating western Florida Bay from the Gulf of Mexico, is an amalgamation 
of four smaller core mudbanks. These core banks are similar to younger mudbanks now 
forming in east-central Florida Bay. Core banks nucleated along the trend of early 
islands and prograded over basal peat and brackish to marine sediments. Interbank 
lagoons filled creating one large mudbank complex. Islands and basal peat beneath core 
banks are remnants of a once continuous coastal levee positioned by a broad horse-shoe 
shaped bedrock depression 30 cm deeper than the surrounding bedrock. Radiocarbon 
dates of peat and articulated pelecypod shells indicate that this coastal levee was 
overridden and marine mudbank accretion began about 2,500 yrs BP. Intense marine 
bioturbation blended levee and brackish sediments with overlying marine sediments as 
core banks developed. Core banks rapidly caught up to sea level at a rate of 9.1 to 61.7 
cm 100 yr' 1 . This rapid rate of core bank sedimentation was made possible by the 
landward recycling of large volumes of carbonate sediment during the Holocene 
transgression. When core banks caught up to sealevel the focus of sedimentation shifted 
to core bank flanks and areas between core banks filled forming one large mudbank. 
Present mudbank dynamics in western Florida Bay is controlled by the distribution and 
mortality of seagrass, sediment supply, winter storms and hurricanes. The Great Labor 
Day Hurricane of 1935 caused significant erosion and bank accretion. Vertical aerial 
photographs from 1935 to 1989 were used to document the morphology of the bank. 


1989 0 

Vincent, A. C. J., and R. S. Clifton-Hadley (1989) Parasitic infection of the seahorse 
(Hippocampus erectus) - a case report. J, Wildlife Diseases . 25(3):404-6. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This paper details the 
development of a microsporidan infection in a colony of seahorses ( Hippocampus 
erectus) caused by Glugea heraldi. Of 76 animals imported from Florida Bay, two 
survived. A myxosporidan ( Sphaeromyxa sp.) and an unindentified nematode infection 
were also diagnosed in the same colony, but these infections were not considered 
important, causative factors in the mortalities. 


1989 0 

Yarbro, L. A., P. R. Carlson, S. Benford, and T. A. Tedesco (1989) Sediment sulfide and 
physiological characteristics of Thalassia testudinum in die-back areas of Florida Bay. 
Abs., 10th Biennial Estuarine Research Conf., Baltimore, MD. 92. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] 
Sediment sulfide concentrations, as well as alcohol dehydrogenase activities and amine 
acid concentrations in Thalassia testudinum rhizomes, were measured in die-back 
patches located in three basins in Florida Bay. Sediment sulfide concentrations of 1.3 to 
7.8 mM were congruent with variations in the intensity of die-back among sites. 
Rhizome ADH activities were significantly correlated with sediment sulfide 


334 



concentrations. Significant differences were found among basins for concentrations of 
total free amino acids, glutamic acid, proline, and arginine. Glutamine and proline also 
exhibited significant differences among die-off zones. Current data suggest (1) hypoxic 
stress may play an important role in the die-off process, and (2) physiological assays 
may be dramatically affected by tissue heterogeneity. 


1989 0 

Windom, H. L., S. J. Schroop, F. D. Calder, J. D. Ryan, R. G. Smith, L. C. Burney, F. G. f 
Lewis, and C. W. Rawlinson (1989) Natural trace metal concentrations in estuarine and 
coastal marine sediments of the southeastern United States. Environ. Sci. Technol. . 
23:314-20. 

Over 450 sediment samples from estuarine and coastal marine areas of the 
southeastern United States remote from contaminant sources were analyzed for trace 
metals. Although these sediments are compositionally diverse, As, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, 
Mn, Ni, and Zn concentrations covary significantly with Al, suggesting that natural 
aluminuosilicate minerals are the dominant natural metal bearing phases. Cadmium and 
Hg do not covary with Al apparently due to the importance of the contribution of natural 
organic phases to their concentration in sediments. It is suggested that the covariance 
of metals with Al provides a useful basis for identification and comparison of 
anthropogenic inputs to southeastern U.S. coastal/estuarine sediments. By the use of 
this approach sediments from the Savannah River, Biscayne Bay, and Pensacola Bay 
are compared. Samples were collected in the Ten Thousand Islands, Whitewater Bay, 
and Florida Bay. 

1989 - 1990 

Carlson, P. R., M. J. Durako, T. R. Barber, L. A. Yarbro, Y. deLama, and B. Hedin (1990) 
Catastrophic mortality of the seagrass Thalassia testudinum. Annual completion rep. Florida 
Dept, of Enviromental Regulation, Florida Marine Research Institute, St. Petersburg, FL. 51 
PP- 

Rapid and widespread mortality of the seagrass Thalassia testudinum is occurring in 
Florida Bay at the southern tip of the Florida Peninsula. This study was performed to: 
(1) quantify the current extent and dynamics of this die-back, (2) assess the recovery 
potential of the die-back sites, and (3) determine the cause(s) of the die-back. Sampling 
was performed in Johnson Key and Rabbit Key Basins and Ranking Lake in the Bay during 
1989 - 1990. Quantitative bimonthly sampling monitored temporal and spatial 
variability in Thalassia's morphometric characteristics. Short-shoot densities, leaf 
lengths, and leaf area indices decreased significantly along gradients from visually 
healthy beds to die-back patches. Leaf numbers per short-shoot were usually highest in 
die-back patches reflecting very low plastochrone intervals (as short as 4-6 days). 
Leaf numbers were lowest in October and December as a result of normal summer leaf 
die-back. Bimonthly sampling of sediment sulfide and Thalassia rhizome metabolites 
revealed that porewater sulfide levels were highest in October, a period of peak 
intensity of die-back. Sulfide concentrations at this time exceeded 2 mM; a level which 
may cause cytotoxic effects. This suggests that sulfide may play a synergistic role in 
the die-back phenomenon. Rhizome ethanol concentrations were significantly affected 
by tissue type, sample interval, and basin, but were not significantly different between 
zones and times of day. Rhizome alcohol dehydrogenase activity (ADH) was 
significantly related to sample date and basin, but effects of zone and tissue type on 
ADH were not significant. ADH activities are not specific indicators of die-back induced 
stress, but they are useful as an index of cumulative, chronic hypoxic stress from all 
sources. No amino acids exhibited significant zone effects which might indicate 
disruption of normal metabolism by the die-back process. An assessment of the roles of 
vegetative and sexual reproduction in the recovery potential of die-back sites revealed 


335 



that isolated survivor Thalassia short-shoots have the ability to initiate new lateral 
growth. However, the rate of shoot initiation (average 2.5 new short-shoots) was quite 
low during the study period. The occurrence of flowering short-shoots and seedlings 
was very patchy and no flowering short-shoots or seedlings were observed at the two 
basins most affected by the die-back. Halodule wrightii (shoal grass) was present in 
52-78% of the quadrats in die-back patches in the two most severely affected basins, 
and in 28% of the quadrats in the least affected basin. These observations indicate that 
the rapid vegetative spread of Halodule may outstrip Thalassia in the initial recovery 
process. Seedling bioassays of toxicity and pathogenicity of chemical and biological 
system elements were conducted in March 1990. Seedlings growing in peat pellets 
received one of nine experimental treatments - raw or autoclaved: seawater from a 
die-back site, dieback sediments, Thalassia leaves with lesions, and dying Thalassia 
rhizomes. The last treatment was inoculation with the slime mold Labyrinthula, which 
had been isolated from lesions on Thalassia leaves from die-back sites in Florida Bay. 
No acute toxicity was noted for water, sediment, or plant material from the die-back 
site. All of the seedlings inoculated with Labyrinthula developed necrotic lesions within 
one week, however the spread of the lesions was quite slow and none of the seedlings 
died during the coarse of the experiment. Field experiments were conducted to test the 
role of environmental stressors in the die-back process. Short-term anoxia caused 
dramatic reductions in rhizome oxygen concentrations and increased carbon dioxide 
concentrations. Dead short-shoot densities were highest and live densities lowest, in 
the glucose addition treatment. Iron addition lowered porewater sulfide levels, but did 
not significantly affect short-shoot survival. Etiological studies of a die-back episode 
suggest that elevated porewater sulfide and rhizome ethanol concentrations precede the 
appearance of necrotic Labyrinthula lesions on Thalassia leaf blades by two months. A 
conceptual model of interacting causes of seagrass mortality suggests that (1) 
environmental stresses weaken Thalassia and make it vulnerable to infection, and (2) 
the proximal cause of death is probably by the pathogenic slime mold Labyrinthula. 

1989 - 1990 

Fourqurean, J. W., R. D. Jones, and J. C. Zieman (1993) Processes influencing water 

column nutrient characteristics and phosphorus limitation of phytoplankton biomass in 

Florida Bay, FL, USA: interferences from spatial distributions. Est. Coastal Shelf Sci. . 

36(3):295-3 1 4. 

The concentrations of nutrients, dissolved and particulate organic matter, salinity and 
chlorophyll-a in the water column were measured over the period of June 1989 to 
August 1990 at a network of 26 sampling locations across Florida Bay. Florida Bay was 
hypersaline during this time period, with an average salinity of 41.4 %o. Dissolved 
organic phosphorus was the dominant form of P in the water column, while soluble 
reactive P was generally less than 5% of the total P. Organic nitrogen forms dominated 
the N pool, and NH 4 + was the dominant form of dissolved inorganic nitrogen. Many of 
the measured parameters were correlated. Principal Components Analysis extracted 
three composite variables that described 90.3% of the variation in the original data 
set. PC, was highly correlated with total organic N, total N, total organic C and salinity. 
PC,| was correlated with all measures of P and chlorophyll-a. PC,,, was correlated with 
measures of inorganic N. The spatial distribution of factor scores for these principal 
components indicates three processes acting independently to control the composition of 
the water column of Florida Bay: the evaporation-driven concentration of dissolved 
material in Florida Bay, the delivery of P to the Bay through water exchange with the 
Gulf of Mexico; and the delivery of freshwater with an excess of N with respect to P to 
the Bay. The phytoplankton biomass in the water column of Florida Bay was shown to be 
P-limited. 


336 



1989 - 1990 

Ley, J. A., C. L. Montague, and C. C. Mclvor (1994) Food habits of mangrove fishes: a 

comparison along estuarine gradients in northeastern Florida Bay. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 

54(3):881 -99. 

Gut analyses were performed on 1,081 fishes from four species resident in mangrove 
habitats in northeastern Florida Bay to determine: (1) if the diets varied 
systematically along complex salinity gradient; and (2) if diets in the upstream areas 
were of lower overall quality than those from portions of the gradient with less 
salinity variability. Fishes commonly consumed amphipods, isopods, shrimp, 
nematodes, eggs of unknown origin, fish, insects, and algae. Diets of two of the four 
species differed significantly along the estuarine gradient. This systematic variation in 
diet along the longitudinal gradient may distinguish locations in terms habitat quality. 
The tidewater mojarra ( Eucinostomus harengulus) and goldspotted killifish 
(Floridichthys carpio) ingested more algae, a relatively low quality food, upstream in 
areas of high salinity variability. These same species ingested more benthic 
invertebrates, relatively high quality foods, downstream in areas of lesser salinity 
variability. If the premise that gut contents of fishes are a good indicator of habitat 
quality is accepted, then these upstream locations afford fishes a relatively poor 
quality habitat. It is proposed that highly variable amounts of submerged aquatic 
vegetation in upstream locations provide reduced and variable abundances of benthic 
invertebrates for fishes at these sites. Our results, combined with those of others 
cited herein, provide support for the hypothesis that water management practices in 
the catchment of northeastern Florida Bay may be, at least in part, responsible for 
lowered productivity there. We suggest that gut contents of resident fishes can be used 
as one measure of habitat quality as part of a comprehensive monitoring and 
restoration program for the region. Sampling took place in two upstream locations, Joe 
Bay and Highway Creek; two midstream locations, Trout Cove and Little Blackwater 
Sound; and two downstream locations, Buttonwood Sound and Blackwater Sound, from 
1989 to 1990. In addition to the two species mentioned above, gulf killifish ( Fundulus 
grandis) and redfin needlefish ( Strongylura notata) were also collected. 

1989 - 1990, 1992 

Carlson, P. R., L. A. Yarbro, and T. R. Barber (1994) Relationship of sediment sulfide to 

mortality of Thalassia testudinum in Florida Bay. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3):733-46. 

Sediment porewater sulfide concentrations in Florida Bay seagrass beds affected by the 
catastrophic mortality of Thalassia testudinum (turtlegrass) were considerably higher 
than those of seagrass beds in the Indian River, Charlotte Harbor, or Tampa Bay. 
Sulfide concentrations in apparently healthy seagrass beds were highest in fall and 
might have contributed to chronic hypoxic stress of Thalassia roots and rhizomes. High 
porewater sulfide concentrations measured in dying areas of seagrass beds suggest 
that sulfide produced by microbial degradation of dying Thalassia might exacerbate 
stress on adjacent, surviving seagrass. Sulfide concentrations in recent die-off areas 
initially were higher than in adjacent, surviving grass beds. By the end of the study, 
however, the pattern was reversed apparently due to depletion of Thalassia- derived 
organic matter in the sediments of die-off areas. In June 1990 high sulfide 
concentrations preceded a die-off episode at one site, suggesting (1) elevated sulfide 
concentrations might be involved in a suite of factors that trigger die-off episodes or 
(2) elevated porewater sulfide results from death and decomposition of below ground 
Thalassia tissue before necrosis of shoots becomes visible. In either case, elevated 
porewater sulfide concentrations might be of value in predicting die-off. We conclude 
that porewater sulfide probably is not the primary cause, but a synergistic stressor, 
which has acted in concert with factors (such as hyperthermia, hypersalinity, and 
microbial pathogens) suggested by other researchers, to cause Thalassia die-off in 


337 




Florida Bay. Sites in Johnson Key Basin, Rabbit Key Basin, Rankin Lake and Sunset 
Cove were sampled in 1989, 1990 and 1992. 

1989 - 1991 

Wang, J. D., J. van de Kreeke, N. Krishnan, and D. Smith (1994) Wind and tide response in 

Florida Bay. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3):579-601. 

Florida Bay is a shallow estuarine environment located between the Everglades 
freshwater wetlands and a chain of islands called the Florida Keys. The assimilation, 
transformation and transport of biogeochemical elements in the Bay are important in 
influencing the health of the regional ecosystem. This system includes extensive live 
coral reefs seaward of the Keys, the only such reefs in the continental US. Distinct 
compartmentalisation by partially submerged banks and multiple islands cause 
extraordinary damping of diurnal and semidiurnal tides within the Bay. The reduced 
circulation has resulted in partial isolation of water masses in subregions and strong 
gradients in salinity. We have collected and analyzed wind data from Miami Airport, 
Key West, Flamingo, and a CMAN station at Molasses Reef for 1989-1991. Although, 
seasonal variations and sea-breeze effects are more pronounced in the mainland 
stations, spatial coherence is high throughout. Correlation of water surface fluctuations 
with wind observations are used to determine the wind-forced dynamic response and 
water exchange. The main responses are distributed within three period bands: diurnal 
and semidiurnal tides, 3 - 5 d-period wind forcing, and long period (about 14.7 d) 
astronomical tides. Numerical model simulation shows that tides are strongly influenced 
by a combination of bottom friction and obstruction to flow from chained islands and 
submerged banks. The damping of the progressive tidal wave is the source of a mean 
sealevel rise of approximately 0.01-0.02 m within the Bay. A large part of the wind 
response is due to remote forcing and results in long wave surges in the Bay. Model 
results also indicate a net southward exchange between the bay and the Atlantic Ocean 
driven by the elevated mean sealevel inside the bay. This net southward exchange is 
supported by results of previous field measurements. 


1990 0 

Bosence, D. W. J. (1990) Biodetrital mud mounds of Florida Bay. Proc., 13th International 

Sedimentological Congress. University London, London, UK. August 28-31, 1990. 13:55-6. 
[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] During the last 
five years a new sedimentary model for the mud-mounds of Florida Bay has been 
proposed. Early work suggested that the banks were biogenic mound-like structures 
formed from the trapping and binding of locally produced (mainly algal) aragonitic mud. 
Recent work shows that the mixed carbonate mineralogy mound sediments are 
generated from the range of shelly biotas within the bay and that production rates 
exceed sediment accumulation rates. Sediment generated within the Bay is transported, 
as both suspended and bed-load, largely by northeast wind-driven currents, towards 
the Gulf of Mexico to the southwest. Mounds in the center of the bay are characterized 
by southwest progradation geometries and physical erosional and depositional 
structures. Large mounds at the mouth of the bay have progradational and agradational 
sequences and result from amalgamation of former southwest prograding mounds. 
These mounds therefore serve as excellent models of mud mounds formed of biodetrital 
mud which is physically deposited, in contrast to recently interpreted Paleozoic 
microbial mud-mounds. A detailed study based on 90 cores illustrates the geometries, 
facies and muds of central Florida Bay mounds. Leeward dipping wedges of the following 
facies were found: basal mollusk, intraclast wacke - packstone, mollusk, foram 
mudstone, mollusk, foram wacke-packstone, foram, mollusk pack - grainstone, Peloid, 
mollusk wacke-packstone. Muds form 10% of windward facies and 40% of leeward 
facies and are predominantly silt-sized (4 - 7 <t>) aragonitic and high magnesian calcite 


338 



grains. SEM examination of muds of this modal size indicated skeletal fragments of 
mollusks and forams. Grains >10 4> have plate, bun and prismatic shapes consistent with 
a mixed skeletal origin. Strontium vs. aragonite values do not vary with different mud 
sizes, and, together with SEM evidence, indicate mud generation through local 
breakdown of available shelly faunas. Three end member sources for the muds are 
suggested: high aragonite- low strontium mollusks, low aragonite- low strontium; 
forams, Thalassia epibionts and lithoclasts, and high aragonite-high strontium green 
algae. Surface sediments and thin sections indicate that deposition is often in the form 
of mm sized fecal pellets. These biodetrital mud-mounds are therefore characterized by 
progradational geometries, physical erosional and depositional sedimentary structures, 
associated facies with coarser biogenic textures, silt-sized skeletal mud of mixed 
mineralogy and geochemistry and an absence of microbial textures and structures. 


1990 0 

Bosence, D., and D. Waltham (1990) Computer modeling of the internal architecture of 

carbonate platforms. Geology . 18:26-30. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE. ABSTRACT FROM SCHMIDT (1991).] A numerical 
computer model is described that calculates the internal architecture of carbonate 
platforms in response to varying values of carbonate production, subaerial and 
submarine erosion, sediment redeposition, and sea-level changes. The computer¬ 
generated sections closely resemble large-scale outcrops and interpreted seismic 
profiles through carbonate platforms. Stillstand and transgressive sequences have 
prograding and downlapping platform geometries with lagoons developing in 
transgressive systems. Regressive sequences have downlapping clinoforms and 
erosional upper surfaces. Carbonate erosion rates are varied and have an important 
effect on the morphology of floodback surfaces. Data for lagoonal and back-reef 
production rates are taken from Bosence (1989). The computer program gives a visual 
picture of the quantitative effects of the many parameters controlling carbonate 
geometrices, and it aids quantitative analysis of the architectures and time scales of 
ancient outcrop or seismic sequences. 


1990 0 

Rude, P. D., and R. C. Aller (1990) Fluorine and strontium mobility during carbonate 

mineral diagenesis. EOS. Transactions . 71 (43): 1421. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The F content 
of biogenic marine carbonates varies with mineralogy (calcite: 20 - 1200 ppm; 
aragonite: 650 - 1600 ppm), positively correlates with the Mg content of calcite, and 
occurs in similar abundance to Sr (high-Mg calcite F/Sr = 2.4 mol mol* 1 ; aragonite: 
0.53 - 0.79; low-Mg calcite: 0.22). Models of pore water over the upper 0 - 15 cm of 
sediment in the shallow water carbonate muds of Florida Bay give fluxes of Ca 2+ , Sr 2 + 
and F* out of the sediment due to carbonate dissolution which should produce measurable 
compositional changes to the deposit. The flux ratio of F/Sr (0.71 mol mol* 1 ) is 
consistent with a biogenic carbonate source but the F/Ca and Sr/Ca are 3-10% that of 
the bulk sources. Selective dissolution of a high F and Sr content phase or concurrent 
dissolution and precipitation of phases with different F and Sr contents are possible 
explanations for this discrepancy. The sediment deposit is -50% aragonite, -40% high- 
Mg calcite and -10% low-Mg calcite. The sediment F/Ca and Sr/Ca are lower than that 
of the source material, and this difference could be produced in a few tens of years by 
the preferential loss of F and Sr predicted by pore water distribution-derived fluxes. 
These measurements demonstrate that significant mineralogical diagenesis occurs on 
rapid time scales in nearshore carbonate sediment and that F is probably extremely 
mobile in other carbonate environments undergoing diagenetic alteration on short and 
longer time scales. Although phosphatic phases and fluorite may play a role in 


339 




controlling F behavior in various cases, carbonate mineral diagenesis is likely to have a 
major influence. 


1990 

Schmidt, T. W., and M. B. Robblee (1994) Causes of fish kills in the Flamingo area of 

Everglades National Park. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3): 1083. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY.) During the summer/fall period of 1990, three large fish kills 
occurred in the Snake Bight area, east of Flamingo in north central Florida Bay. These 
events caused public concern which prompted the Park to initiate a study to determine 
if fish kills occurred as a result of stressful environmental conditions or in response to 
anthropogenic contaminants. In December funding was obtained to begin a study. The 
objectives of the study were to: (1) gather and summarize historical data on fish kills 
in park coastal waters; (2) establish a continuous water quality monitoring platform in 
Snake Bight; and (3) survey fish associated with a fish kill for potential anthropogenic 
contaminants. Based on summaries of historical park fish kill events, it was found that 
38 kills have occurred since 1944; seven took place during the passage of south Florida 
cold fronts while the remaining 31 occurred between March and November and appear 
to have resulted from hypoxic conditions due to local environmental extremes. Nearly 
half of the kills took place in the waters of either Florida or Whitewater Bays; 24% 
occurred east of Flamingo in Snake Bight. Over half of the Snake Bight kills were 
considered severe (1,000 to 100,000 fish reported as dead); most took place over the 
past 15 yrs. Snake Bight is an area characterized by extreme environmental conditions 
(i.e., severe seagrass die-off, poor water quality, elevated salinities, and hypoxia due 
to restricted tidal circulation and very shallow water), and relatively frequent fish 
kills. Presumably, fish kills result from significant drops in water temperature or by 
stress related hypoxia associated with these extreme environmental conditions. To 
date no substantive information is available to suggest that fish kills are caused by the 
disposal of pollutants in the Everglades National Park. It is possible that the effects of 
severe seagrass die-off east of Flamingo contributed to the three fish kills reported in 
Snake Bight during the summer-fall period of 1990. However, the causal factors 
involved in seasonal fish kills are unknown. To answer these questions, we need to 
continue collecting fish kill information, improve this documentation, monitor water 
quality data in relation to environmental conditions associated with a fish kill and, when 
necessary, analyze fish for potential contaminants. 

1990, 1993 

Schmidt, T. W. (1993) Report on fish kill investigations in the Flamingo area of the 

Everglades National Park. South Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park, 

Homestead, FL. December 1993. 

During the late summer-early fall period of 1993, three fish kill events were 
documented in the Snake Bight area, east of Flamingo The most extensive kill in terms 
of size occurred in Garfield Bight in late august where the total numbers of dead fish 
were estimated between 5,450 to 7,150 and were observed over 1-mile of shoreline. 
The largest in terms of area (over 3 miles of shoreline affected), but not in mortality 
occurred in northwest Snake Bight during late September where the range of total 
numbers of fish killed was 3,300 to 5,400. The smallest in area and in fish mortality 
occurred in the Buttonwood Canal/Coot Bay boat ramp area of Flamingo during late 
October where a total kill was estimated between 950 and 1,100 fish. These fish kill 
events affected a variety of temperate and subtemperate species. These shallow 
coastal zone inhabitants were mostly bottom and near bottom feeders such as adult and 
sub-adult sized black and read drum, catfish, mullet, and spotted seatrout. They were 
the predominant native species affected while juvenile Mayan cichlids were the 
predominant non-native species involved. A combination, of physical conditions 


340 



produced the extensive fish mortality observed in the study areas: (1) air and water 
temperatures maximas in late August were very high; (2) dissolved oxygen 
concentrations on August 23 experienced a rapid decline with a dissolved oxygen 
minima approaching short-lived hypoxia/anoxia, whereas persistent, long-lived 
hypoxic/anoxic conditions were observed in the Buttonwood Canal areas; and (3) large 
charges in the spring-neap lunar tidal cycle, the seasonal oceanic water level cycle and 
poor water circulation. Higher than average tides associated with higher than normal 
water levels, particularly in Snake Bight, may have permitted greater access to the 
shallowest inlets along the mainland. Subsequently, when the warmest waters were 
unable to provide sufficient oxygen (e.g., Garfield Bight), a shallow water "refuge- 
death trap" phenomenon occurred. It is believed that this is the first time that hypoxic 
conditions have been documented during a Park marine fish kill event. In 1990, three 
fish kills occurred at the same time in both the Snake Bight and Garfield Bight areas 
east of Flamingo. They were described as having the same general pattern as noted in 
1993 kills except that a larger number of fish may have died. No water quality 
measurements were made during the 1990 die-off. However, because the similarities 
involved, it is quite possible that the kills in earlier years were also caused by oxygen 
depletion. Peak periods of annual fish kills in the southeastern United States usually 
occur during mid-summer to early fall. These fish kills may result from stress related 
hypoxia (dissolved oxygen values <5.0 ppm) associated with high air/water 
temperatures, large rainfall events, extreme low water and or a combination of these 
factors. It is this time of the year dissolved oxygen concentrations in estuarine and 
coastal marine waters are experiencing their lowest levels of the year. Although 
findings have been significant with respect to the cause of the fish kills in the Flamingo 
area, they have also highlighted the complex and difficult nature of the Florida Bay 
ecosystem. It is not yet known what, precisely, from a myriad of sources contribute to 
hypoxia/anoxia in the Snake Bight area. It may represent a natural phenomenon with 
which the fishes are in a delicate balance. It should be noted that stresses associated 
with eutrophication could affect the oxygen budget as well as decomposition of organic 
material (e. g. seagrass die-off), and nutrient over-enrichment could result in hypoxic 
conditions. 


1990 0 

Textoris, S. D. (1990) Patch reefs in the Pleistocene of South Florida and their 

implications. The Compass . 67(2): 115. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The Pleistocene 
underlies much of the southern tip of the Florida mainland and extends southward 
through the Keys and beneath Florida Bay. Five units, designated Q1 through Q5 (oldest 
to youngest), are separated unconformably by freshwater limestones and supposed 
subaerial(?) crusts. The upper part of the sequence (Q4 and Q5) consists of the Miami 
Limestone for which three facies are recognized, coral, ‘bryozoan', and oolite, each the 
result of a different environment — shelf-edge, quiet protected back—reef, and shallow 
agitated marine. The lower part of the section, tentatively correlated with the Fort 
Thompson Formation, consists of quartzose sandstone (Q1 and Q2) followed by 
carbonate deposition (Q2 and Q3) as the source of elastics diminished and the water 
became shallower. The reef of the Key Largo Limestone (in part the coral facies of the 
Miami Limestone) began growing along the shelf edge in its present position in Q3 time 
contemporaneously with the development of patch reefs in the Bay area. At least three 
patch reefs are known and have been outlined by diamond-drill 11 coring and another is 
suspected in the backreef area. The presence of a configuration similar to present-day 
conditions supports the supposition that the Keys formed in part as a barrier reef 
during the late Pleistocene. Termination of the reef growth occurred when they either 


341 



were smothered by the oolite or exposed subaerially with the withdrawal of the sea 
from the area. 


1990 0 

Walter, L. M., W. P. Patterson, and K. Muehlenbachs (1990) Variation in carbon isotopic 
composition of surface seawater on tropical carbonate platforms; Florida Bay and Atlantic 
reef tract, Florida. EOS. Transactions . 71 (43): 1390. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Although 
fluctuations in the C isotopic compositions of ancient shallow marine carbonates are 
used in constructing geochemical cycling models, relatively little is known of C isotopic 
variation in waters associated with modern carbonate platforms. Investigation of C 
isotopic composition along with other chemical parameters (Cl, alkalinity, TIC, Ca) of 
surface seawaters overlying shallow platforms of the Florida Keys revealed significant 
spatial variability. Carbon isotopic compositions of the least chemically evolved waters 
sampled seaward of the reef tract were about +1.8 °/oo PDB, slightly lighter than 
values for Atlantic surface waters. C isotopic compositions decreased by up to 1.5 %o 

in more restricted waters (salinity of about 38 %o) of the inner shelf. In even more 

restricted waters of Florida Bay, where salinities increased up to 60 %o, depletions in 
alkalinity and Ca were more severe, and C isotopic values decreased to values as low 
as -4 %o. Although associated with changes in water chemistry driven by CaC0 3 
precipitation, the magnitude of isotopic variations (nearly 6 °/oo) is inconsistent with 
fractionation during precipitation. Instead, we attribute the isotopic variations to 
recycling of isotopically light organic C from sediment pore waters which would have 
greatest impact on surface waters with longer residence times. Less detailed C isotopic 
data on sediment samples show that those from Florida Bay are about 1.5 %o lighter 
than those of the inner reef tract. Thus, isotopic differences in the waters are long- 

lived and reflected in the sediment record over the last several 1000 yrs. 

1990 - 1991 

Peters, D. S., L. Settle, J. Burke, and E. Laban (1994) Comparative utilization of Florida 
Bay as a nursery area by juvenile grunts. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3): 1082. 

Seven trawl surveys of Florida Bay, Everglades National Park, were conducted 
between June 1990 and October 1991, in order to describe spawning times, size at 
recruitment to the bay, relative abundance, and distribution and growth rate of juvenile 
grunts. Species present in decreasing order of abundance, were white grunt, blue 
striped grunt, pigfish, sailors choice and French grunt. The northern and western 
regions of the Bay, with high turbidity and dense grassbeds, were the only regions used 
by pigfish and contained the highest density of white grunt. Sailors choice and blue 
striped grunt were present in all areas though more common in the east. Pigfish (as 
small as 15 mm and 50 days old) recruited to the nursery area in March, grew more 
rapidly than other species (0.76 mm day 1 ) and by winter were either gone or no longer 
available to our gear. Blue striped grunt were spawned throughout the year with a peak 
from February through April, recruited to the Bay at approximately 30 mm SL and 70 
days old, grew 0.46 mm SL day 1 and remained in the bay up to a year. White grunt, the 
product of spring (May - June) and fall (September November) spawnings, recruited to 
the western bay at about 20 mm SL and 50 days old and central bay at about 50 mm SL 
and 130 days old. They remained in the bay up to a year, growing on average 0.23 mm 
day' 1 , however, those in the turbid west grew much faster than those in the clearer 
central region. 


342 




1990 - 1991 

Schirripa, M. J., and C. P. Goodyear (1994) Simulation modeling of conservation standards 
for spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus) in Everglades National Park. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 
54(3): 1019-35. 

A stock assessment was conducted on the spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus) stock 
of Florida Bay including simulated outcomes of six possible regulatory options. Female 
ovarian weight (g) was regressed on total length (in) (ovarian weight = 9.62E x 10' 4 
total length 3 - 542661 ; r = 0.78). Annual estimates of fishing mortality (F) for fully 
recruited fish (age 4-8) ranged from F = 0.28 in 1981 to F = 0.91 in 1974 with an 
overall average of F = 0.54. Annual estimates of spawning potential ratio ranged from a 
low of 28% in 1974 to a high of 35% in 1981. Yield-per-recruit analysis suggests that 
with 10% release mortality the fishery is now operating very near the level of 
mortality that would produce the maximum yield-per-recruit. However, a 25% release 
mortality would place the fishery beyond this level. Simulations indicate that if fishing 
mortality continues at the estimated levels for 1990 then increasing the minimum size 
to 16 in. would increase yield per-recruit by 15% and increase the spawning potential 
ratio to 40% within 5 yrs. Spotted seatrout gonad samples were collected from 
Flamingo and West Lake in 1990 and 1991. 

1990 - 1991 

Thayer, G. W., P. L. Murphy, and M. W. LaCroix (1994) Responses of plant communities in 
western Florida Bay to the die-off of seagrasses. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3):718-26. 

Seagrass habitats in western Florida Bay have been undergoing changes from monotypic 
Thalassia testudinum meadows to large landscapes of barren bottoms or to increasingly 
heterogeneous Thalassia meadows as a result of seagrass die-off patch formation. The 
cause of die-off is unknown but current hypotheses point to environmental stress 
making this seagrass susceptible to disease. The potential exists for colonization and 
recovery of these die-off patches but the sequence of events and the persistence of the 
recovery have not been evaluated. Based on an existing model that represents 
theoretical successional steps toward the Thalassia climax, four habitat types were 
sampled in each of two basins of western Florida Bay. Data demonstrated a high 
potential for recovery of the denuded die-off patches. The alga Batophora oerstedii is 
the first colonizer with replacement by other algal species and subsequently Halodule 
wrightii and eventually Thalassia. Under the existing conditions of high resuspended 
carbonate sediment and biological turbidity, which are thought to be secondary 
responses of the system to the die-off of seagrasses, persistence of the colonizing 
habitats and the climax community itself is tenuous. Decreases in both Halodule and 
Thalassia in non-dieoff areas of Johnson Key Basin between spring and fall 1991 
occurred as did decreases in densities of these species in recovering patches. 
Subsequent visits in 1993 revealed that the sample sites were devoid of seagrasses. 
Plant densities were determined in Johnson Key Basin and Rabbit Key Basin during 1990 
and 1991. 

1990 - 1992 

Sheridan, P. F. (1994) Community response to seagrass die-off in Florida Bay I. Shallow 
banks. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3):1083. 

Drop sampling in 1990 - 1992 compared fishes and decapods in healthy Thalassia, open 
water caused by die-off, and algal and Halodule regrowth. In waters <1 m depth, fishes 
were dominated by Lucania in Thalassia and by Floridichthys elsewhere. Decapods were 
dominated by Thor in Thalassia and by a mixture of Thor, Penaeus and Pagurus 
elsewhere. Fish and decapod densities were usually highest in Thalassia, lowest in open 
water, and intermediate in Halodule and algae. Fish and decapod species diversities 
were usually higher in disturbed habitats. These distributions may be affected by 


343 





behavior, feeding or predation. Laboratory experiments with Lucania and Cyprinodon (a 
congener of Floridichthys) indicated that single species distributions may be altered 
when schools of different species interact. Infaunal communities were altered as well. 
Predatory Opsanus consumed more Lucania in disturbed habitats than in healthy 
Thalassia. 


1991 0 

Andrews, J. E. (1991) Geochemical indicators of depositional and early diagenetic facies in 

Holocene carbonate muds, and their preservation potential during stabilization. Chem. Geol. . 

93(3-4):267-89. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.) Holocene carbonate muds (<63- 
pm fraction) and macro-organic matter were collected from marine subtidal mudbanks 
and supralittoral mud islands of Florida Bay, and freshwater marshes of the 
Everglades. Geochemistry, sedimentology and mineralogy were used to determine 
whether carbonate mud formation in specific marine and freshwater environments was 
geochemically distinct and to assess the importance of early diagenetic reactions on 
mud chemistry and mineralogy. Significant variations were found in the relative 
amounts of carbonate minerals, not just between the marine and freshwater 
environments, but also within Florida Bay. In particular, Mg-calcite is enriched in 
Crane Key muds by -10% relative to nearby Cross Bank. The Mg-calcite appears to 
precipitate in the surface-living cyanobacterial mats of the key and seems to be linked 
to Mg chelation by the cyanobacterial organic matter. This Mg-calcite has a distinct 
5 13 C around -4 %o, 6 %o lighter than Mg-calcite derived from Thalassia epibionts in 
the Cross Bank muds. Dolomite was found just below the cyanobacterial mats forming in 
the only part of the core where reactive organic carbon has been completely removed 
by sulfate-reducing bacteria. The § 13 C values of this dolomite (at least -4 %o) are 
consistent with previously published 8 13 C values of dissolved inorganic carbon in pore 
waters at this horizon which support dolomite formation in situ. Mg supply for dolomite 
formation may be from dissolution of the overlying cyanobacterial mat Mg-calcite. The 
various types of organic matter have distinctive 8 13 C-values ranging from - -25 %o 
(mangrove and sawgrass) to - -10 %o (cyanobacterial mats) and -8 %o ( Thalassia 
seagrass). Values intermediate between these end-members record mixing of the 
organic matter types which shows particularly the time when the bank muds became 
dominated by Thalassia organic matter, i.e. were relatively removed from mangrove 
vegetation. Five Holocene mud suites (bank, key, cyanobacterial mats, mangrove 
swamp, and freshwater Everglades swamp) show distinct chemical signatures in their 
mean 5 13 C, 5 18 0, MgC0 3 and Sr values. Sodium distinguishes between seawater and 
non-seawater influenced environments but Fe, Mn and P are mainly controlled by non¬ 
carbonate materials. Comparison with published stable isotope and elemental data for 
Pleistocene limestones in the South Florida area suggests that only the facies diagnostic 
signatures of 5 13 C and Mg will be resolvable once the muds have been stabilized to 
micrite. Alteration of the 5 ie O and Sr values during stabilization will probably be more 
severe to the extent that original facies variations are destroyed. 


1991 0 

Fourqurean, J. W., and J. C. Zieman (1991) Photosynthesis, respiration and whole plant 
carbon budget of the seagrass Thalassia testudinum. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. . 69:161-70. 
[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.) The photosynthesis versus 
irradiance (P/I) response of the seagrass Thalassia testudinum from Florida Bay was 
measured using the oxygen evolution of intact short shoots enclosed in sealed 
chambers, and found to have a light-saturated P/I behavior. All plants for this study 
were collected near Crane and Panhandle Keys and shipped to Charleston, VA. All four 
of the commonly used mathematical formulations of the P/I curve were of equal utility 


344 




in describing the data. When fit to the data using a least-squares fitting procedure, they 
produced nearly identical lines explaining 90% of the variance in the data. The 
estimates of the P/I model parameters a and P max produced by the four different 
formulations varied widely, however, so parameter values generated using one model 
cannot be used in other models. Green photosynthetic leaves accounted for only 15.0% 
of the total biomass of Florida Bay T. testudinum. The remaining 85% was apportioned 
into below ground short shoots, rhizomes and roots. Leaves had higher respiration 
rates (7.4 fig O 2 g' 1 min' 1 ) than the below ground structures (0.9 to 4.6 |ig O 2 g' 1 
min' 1 ), and accounted for 42.6% of total plant respiration. The P/I curve and 
respiration data were used to build a daily carbon budget for Florida Bay T. testudinum. 
Estimated carbon fixation rates agreed closely with previously collected field 14 C 
uptake measurements. Under average summer light conditions, the budget was positive 
as deep as 4 m, suggesting that plants can survive at this depth. H sat was 0 h at depths 
greater than 3 m, however. 


1991 0 

Lidz, B. H., and E. A. Shinn (1991) Paleoshorelines, reefs, and a rising sea: South Florida, 

USA. J. Coastal Res. . 7(1):203-29. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The porous limestone bedrock, 
thin sediment cover, and tectonic stability of the Florida Platform during the post 15 ka 
BP provide an exceptionally suitable setting for reconstruction of paleoshorelines and 
onshore projection of future shorelines in a rising-sea scenario. Paleoshorelines for 8, 
6, 4 and 2 ka BP show that: (1) a series of limestone islands formed, then drowned, 
along the outer platform; (2) a distinct trough, called Hawk Channel, separated the 
outer islands from shore; (3) the lower Keys flooded earlier and more rapidly than the 
rest of the Keys; and (4) Florida Bay and tidal passes through the middle Keys into the 
Bay developed within the past 4 ka BP. During the Quaternary, topographic highs were 
preferential sites for coral growth. Bathed by clear oceanic waters, reefs near the 
platform flourished. As sea level rose, reefs developed on the platform margin and 
were gradually displaced to more shoreward bedrock highs. Upon platform flooding, 
water quality deteriorated and reef luxuriance diminished. Projection of future 
shorelines onto land shows that most land forming the Florida Keys would flood in a rise 
of 1 to 2 m and that a rise of little more than 5 m would submerge all land. Offshore 
reefs would die, while nearshore reefs would shift landward as the mainland shoreline 
migrated northward. Onshore topographic highs would become numerous small islands 
as the Keys flooded, until all drowned. The submerged highs would then become 
preferred sites for coral growth, until water quality and depth exceeded the optimum 
for survival. 


1991 0 

Reynolds, J. E., and D. K. Odell (1991) Manatees and Duaonqs . Facts on File, NY. 192 pp. 
[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This book contains chapters on 
the evolution of manatees and dugongs, and. the species found in Florida, the Antilles, 
West Africa and the Amazon. The chapter on the Florida manatee contains descriptions 
of the anatomy, senses, and behavior of this species in Florida waters. 


1991 0 

Rude, P. D. (1991) On the marine geochemistry of fluorine. Ph. D. Dissertation. State 

University of New York, Stony Brook, NY. 206 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Dissolved fluoride concentrations 
in marine sediment pore water often differ from those found in overlying seawater. The 
common explanation for these differences has been reactions of F-bearing phosphatic 
phases. Fluoride concentrations during diagenesis could vary due to reactions involving 


345 




other F-bearing phases. The purpose of this dissertation was to examine the behavior of 
F during other mineral reactions in the sea. The involvement of F in carbonate and 
alumino-silicate mineral reactions during sediment early diagenesis are examined as is 
the effect of MgF + ion pair formation on F* adsorption. The approach was to combine 
field sampling, manipulative laboratory experiments, and diagenetic modeling. Models 
of pore water solute distributions, direct solute flux measurements, and reaction rate 
estimates from carbonate sediment of Florida Bay predict net F\ Sr 2+ , and Ca 2+ fluxes 
out of the sediment. The net flux ratio of F/Sr is consistent with dissolution of 
aragonite or high-Mg calcite, but F/Ca and Sr/Ca are 3-10 times that of biogenic 
carbonate sources. Concurrent dissolution and reprecipitation of phases with different F 
and Sr contents accounts for this discrepancy. These fluxes could cause significant 
mineralogical and chemical changes on rapid time scales in carbonate sediment. The 
speciation of F' in seawater is dominated by the free ion (51%) and the MgF + ion pair 
(47%). Experiments with hydrous oxides demonstrate that F* adsorption in seawater is 
predominantly reversible and directly linked to the formation of MgF + in solution and 
co-adsorption of Mg 2+ and F* at particle surfaces. MgF + formation in seawater and its 
influence on F* adsorption has important implications for the mobility and distribution of 
F* in the sea. Tremendous dissolved F* uptake by Amazon continental shelf sediment 
during early diagenesis occurs. The majority of this uptake (~7% of the previously 
defined global ocean sinks) is due to alteration of detrital alumino-silicates or 
authigenic alumino-silicate formation. If Amazon sediment is representative of all 
tropical river sediment, then F uptake by such reactions would equal -40% of the 
previously defined global F sinks and be the most important mechanism of fluoride 
removal in the sea. 

1991 - 1992 

Butler, M. J., W. F. Herrnkind, and J. H. Hunt (1994) Sponge mass mortality and Hurricane 

Andrew: catastrophe for juvenile spiny lobsters in south Florida?. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 

54(3): 1073. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY.] The hardbottom communities of Florida Bay and Biscayne Bay are 
dominated by sponges, macroalgae, and octocorals, and are prime settlement and 
juvenile nursery habitat for south Florida's spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) population. 
We have been studying spiny lobster recruitment in south Florida for nearly a decade 
and, in 1991—1992, our ongoing field investigations provided us the opportunity to 
quantitatively assess the impact of two large-scale disturbances on hardbottom 
community structure and, consequently, juvenile spiny lobster population dynamics. 
From November 1991 - January 1992, a massive sponge die-off occurred in south- 
central Florida Bay following an episodic phytoplankton bloom thought to have resulted 
from the nutrient flux emanating from a seagrass die-off event. Nearly every species 
of sponge was impacted and over 90% of the sponges were dead or damaged in many 
areas. Sponges are the primary shelter for juvenile spiny lobsters and their loss 
precipitated dramatic shifts in lobster shelter use and abundance. Hurricane Andrew 
slammed into south Florida the following September and passed directly over Biscayne 
Bay, where we had completed surveys of juvenile spiny lobster abundance and 
hardbottom habitat structure only a month before. We are resurveying those sites to 
determine the effect of the storm on hardbottom community structure and the juvenile 
spiny lobster abundance and distribution. These two massive, but dissimilar 
disturbances have potentially important consequences for south Florida's hardbottom 
habitat and the juvenile spiny lobsters that reside there. 

1991 - 1992 

Childress, M. J., and W. F. Herrnkind (1994) The behavior of juvenile Caribbean spiny 

lobster in Florida Bay: seasonality, ontogeny and sociality. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3):819-27. 


346 




Laboratory experiments and field manipulations were conducted to evaluate the extent 
to which ontogenetic and certain environmental conditions interact to alter the behavior 
of juvenile Caribbean spiny lobsters following settlement. In addition we evaluated 
whether articular behavioral changes could increase a juvenile's chance of survival. We 
tested the effects of time of day, season, developmental stage and the presence of 
conspecifics on the activity state and sheltering behavior of lobsters. We also 
estimated relative predation rates by tethering lobsters under five types of shelter 
during summer and late fall. Algal phase lobsters (8-12 mm CL) were more active at 
night, and foraged more and walked less in summer than in the late fall. Post-algal 
phase lobsters (24 - 28 mm CL) were more active when in the presence of 
conspecifics. Predation rates in all seasons were highest for lobsters without cover and 
lowest while in algal cover. The proportion of algal juveniles found walking during their 
active period changed with the seasons and significantly fewer individuals foraged in 
late fall than in summer. Variation in the behavior of post-algal lobsters may reflect 
the niche shift from full-time algal dwelling to diurnal crevice sheltering yet the 
difference in predation risk between algal sheltering and crevice sheltering is not 
sufficient to explain the size at which this transition should occur. Shifting from algae 
to crevices could potentially produce a population bottleneck for lobsters in areas 
devoid of appropriate structure. This may be especially important for evaluating the 
impact of recent widespread shelter loss by sponge die-off in the Florida Bay lobster 
nursery. The lobsters used for this study were collected in Fiesta Key, Conch Key, and 
Long Key. 

1991 - 1992 

Frankovich, T. A., and J. C. Zieman (1994) Total epiphyte carbonate production on 

Thalassia testudinum across Florida Bay. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3):679-95. 

Previous investigations of epiphytic carbonate production have suggested that seagrass 
epiphytes are significant producers of calcium carbonate and may be a primary source 
of lime muds in Florida Bay. This study determined total epiphyte and epiphytic 
carbonate standing stocks and calculated minimum estimates of yearly production at 
seven sites within Florida Bay and one site oceanside of the northern Florida Keys. 
These sites span a larger geographical area of increased environmental variability than 
those of previous Florida Bay epiphyte studies which were conducted in areas where 
conditions are considered favorable for epiphyte production. Total epiphyte and 
epiphytic carbonate loads along with seagrass shoot density and productivity were 
measured during four periods between August 1991 and August 1992. Epiphyte 
composition, standing stock, and production all exhibited marked variation across 
Florida Bay. Calcifying epiphytes were dominant in Florida Bay, and their distribution 
and the distribution of epiphyte production appear to reflect differences in the physical 
characteristics of salinity and the variability thereof. Minimum estimates of annual 
epiphytic carbonate production range from 1.9 g CaC0 3 nrr 2 yr 1 to 282.7 g CaC0 3 nrv 2 
yr* 1 , a range lower than previous estimates. The differences between these estimates 
and previous ones are attributed to differences in environments and, to a lesser extent, 
differences in methodology. 


1992 0 

Barber, T. R. (1992) Biogeochemistry of light hydrocarbons in South Florida wetlands. Ph. 
D. Dissertation. University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, FL. 166 pp. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE.] 


347 



1992 0 

Cubit, J. D. (1992) Global climate change and the importance of tidal flat ecosystems in the 

Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico. Abs., 1992 Symp. on Florida Keys Regional Ecosystem, 

November 16-20, Miami, FL. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY, DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Algae, corals, 
seagrasses and other living organisms actively construct and maintain extensive tidal 
flat structures in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean. The various types of tidal flats, 
including reef flats, algal flats, and seagrass flats, are important economically and 
ecologically. They rank among the world's most productive ecosystems and export 
much of their organic material to adjacent ecosystems. These biogenic structures of 
carbonate rock and consolidated sediment, covered by meadows of plants and sessile 
animals, function as foraging grounds, nursery areas, natural breakwaters and 
shoreline reinforcements. Models of global climate change predict considerable changes 
for coastal environments of the Gulf and Caribbean, including rises in sea level, 
increases of water temperature, and more frequent hurricanes. Physical and 
geographic features of the Florida Bay and the Keys, such as the narrow tidal range and 
location in the "hurricane belt," would make this region particularly sensitive to the 
effects of global climate change. Long term, integrated monitoring of natural variations 
of the physical environment and populations of algae, seagrasses, corals, and other 
reef flat biota on the Caribbean coast of Panama demonstrate that changes in sea level 
and sea temperature can affect the distribution and abundance of these organisms, but 
the tidal flat communities as a whole should be able to maintain vertical rates of habitat 
accretion in pace with predicted rises in sea level until the middle of the next century. 
However, studies of the effects of a major oil spill at this site illustrate that such 
pollution can cause longer-term damage of the groups of biota essential for building 
tidal flat structures. Proper management to maintain the tidal flat ecosystems in the 
Gulf and Caribbean, including the diverse tidal flats of Florida Bay and the Keys, could 
mitigate much of the potential damage expected from global climate change, including 
erosion of shorelines, loss of endangered species habitats, destruction of developed 
property and reduction of fisheries. 


1992 0 

Egglestons, D. B., and R. N. Lipcius (1992) Experimental enhancement of the Caribbean 
spiny lobster: a geographical comparison of the importance of settlement, habitat features, 
migration and predator guilds. Bull. Ecol. Soc. Amer. . 73(Suppl. 2): 166. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY, DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Field 
observations quantified the abundance of juvenile and adult spiny lobsters in shelter- 
enhanced habitats of varying settlement strength and refuge availability. Spiny lobster 
abundance increased significantly over 12 months in shelter-enhanced systems in the 
Bahamas, but not in control sites. However, the relative abundance of lobsters between 
the Bahamas and a replicate experiment in Florida Bay was substantially lower due to 
the joint effects of refuge availability and settlement strength. Shelters located near a 
migration route out of a nursery habitat in the Bahamas attracted high numbers of large 
juvenile and adult lobsters, as well as large piscine predators (i.e., Nassau grouper). 
Small juvenile lobsters suffered significantly higher mortality on shelters located near 
the migration route versus away from it. The success of artificial shelters in enhancing 
lobster abundance depends not only upon settlement strength and refuge availability, 
but on local recruitment and movement patterns of predators. 


1992 

Field, J. M., and M. J. Butler (1994) The influence of temperature, salinity, and larval 
transport on the distribution of juvenile spiny lobster, Panulirus argus, in Florida Bay. Bull- 
Mar. ScL 54(3):1074. 


348 





Florida Bay is the major nursery area for Florida's spiny lobster, Panulirus argus. It is 
characterized by a series of shallow hardbottom or seagrass covered basins separated 
by seagrass covered mud banks less than one meter in depth. Because these mud banks 
serve as barriers to circulation, the basins formed between the banks may experience 
extreme fluctuations in temperature and salinity due to reduced tidal influx and high 
rates of evaporation. Larval transport to areas of Florida Bay that experience these 
temperature/salinity fluctuations were monitored monthly (March 1992 - July 1992) 
using artificial benthic collectors. Diver surveys to monitor new recruits and 
characterize lobster habitat were also conducted at eight sites along two transects 
(four sites per transect) leading from the cuts between the Florida Keys and extending 
north and northwest to Twin Key Bank and the subsequent basin. Concurrently, 
postlarval P. argus were reared in the laboratory, in a completely crossed design, at 
four temperatures (18°C, 22°C, 29°C, and 33°C) and four salinities (25, 35, 45, and 
50 °/oo). Survival, time to metamorphosis, and growth to first stage juvenile were 
measured. Results from monthly benthic collector censuses suggest that postlarvae are 
not regularly transported beyond Twin Key Bank, however, diver surveys indicate that 
some recruitment does occur in the western and central position of Twin Key basin, but 
not in the eastern portion of the same basin. During this study, temperature and salinity 
readings in this basin ranged from 21 °C to 32°C and 35 %o to 45 °/oo , respectively. 
Laboratory results indicate that this range of temperatures and salinities could be 
tolerated, however, mortality is greatest at high temperatures in conjunction with high 
salinities. 


1992 0 

Fourqurean, J. W. (1992) The roles of resource availability and resource competition in 

structuring seagrass communities of Florida Bay. Ph. D. Dissertation. University of 

Virginia, Charlottesville, VA. 280 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This dissertation examines the 
effects of the availability of light and nutrients on the structure of seagrass beds of 
Florida Bay. The tradeoffs made in resource acquisition strategy by the three most 
common seagrass species from the Bay, Thalassia testudinum, Halodule wrightii, and 
Syringodium filiforme, determined the distributions of these three species. The relative 
importance of the nutrients, nitrogen and phosphorus, in limiting the productivity of the 
seagrass-dominated Florida Bay ecosystem was also evaluated. Laboratory measures 
of photosynthetic and respiratory rates were made for leaves, non-photosynthetic 
portions of the short shoots, rhizomes and roots of all three species. A carbon budget 
model of the light requirements of seagrasses was developed. Observed differences in 
the light requirements of seagrasses were explained using this budget model. 
Differences in light requirements were shown to be caused by interspecies differences 
in apportionment of biomass into photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic structures, as 
well as differences in metabolic rates. Light requirements of all three species was a 
function of the relative apportionment of biomass to different plant tissues: the more 
plant biomass allocated to nutrient gathering organs, the greater the light requirement. 
Phosphorus availability limited the phytoplankton and seagrass productivity of Florida 
Bay. The main sources of P for Florida Bay was shown to be the Gulf of Mexico, while 
freshwater runoff from the Everglades was a source of N. The density of seagrass in 
Florida Bay was directly related to the concentration of P, but not N, in the sediment 
porewater. P availability also determined the species composition of seagrass beds. The 
P content of Thalassia testudinum leaves from Florida Bay was highly variable, and the 
elemental content of seagrass tissue proved to be an indicator of the availability of 
nutrients to seagrasses, both on local and regional scales. Changing the nutrient supply 
rates to seagrass beds in Florida Bay caused the species composition of the seagrass 
beds to shift. Both this shift, and the normal successional sequence and distributional 


349 


patterns of the seagrasses of Florida Bay can be explained by different resource 
acquisition strategies of the seagrass species. 


1992 

Kramer, P. A., P. K. Swart, H. L. Vacher, and T. Juster (1994) Controls on salinity in 

Florida Bay islands. Bull. Mar. Sci.. 54(3): 1078. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY.] Holocene mud islands found within Florida Bay often contain 
ephemeral ponds in their interior which are periodically flooded by either bay water 
during high tides and storms, or by meteoric water during seasonal rainfall. The 
salinity within these ponds, and the island sediments underlying the ponds, is thought to 
be controlled by the frequency and intensity of flooding, type of flooding, and intensity 
of evaporation. To better understand these controls, salinity was measured in ponds 
and in pore fluids taken from 15 islands across much of Florida Bay in February, 1992. 
In addition, one island, Cluett Key, was instrumented with pressure transducers to 
determine the frequency of tidal flooding. Although large variations in salinity exist 
between different islands (38 - 130 g kg' 1 ), the shape of the salinity profiles within 
each island was similar, often reaching a maximum between 60 and 80 cm depth from 
the surface. There appears to be no trend in the magnitude of an island's salinity with 
it's geographic location within Florida Bay, suggesting that rainfall gradients and 
salinity gradients within Bay waters are having little effect on an island's salinity. 
Based on this survey, we hypothesize that it is the flooding frequency of Bay waters 
over an island and thus the elevation of an island relative to Bay waters that controls 
the magnitude of it's salinity. Transducer data from Cluett Key support this scenario, 
and in fact show that the island is flooded daily by Bay waters during the highest tides 
of a month. 


1 992 

Kuta, K. G., and L. L. Richardson (1994) Distribution and frequency patterns of black band 

disease in the northern Florida Keys. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3):1078. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY.] Black band disease is present throughout the coral reefs of the 
Florida Keys. The disease consists of a population of the cyanobacterium Phormidiurn 
corallyticum and associated microbial community, and is characterized by an active 
season which occurs during the warmer months when water temperature is at or above 
25°C. A field investigation was carried out during the 1992 active season to determine 
the distribution and frequency patterns of infected scleractinian coral colonies, and to 
support a statistical analysis of coral species which became infected. Three reefs were 
chosen for an in depth study - Algae Reef, Grecian Rocks, and Key Largo Dry Rocks. The 
reefs are patch and fringing reefs, and all are offshore from Key Largo in the Florida 
Keys National Marine Sanctuary. The study was carried out using both photo transects 
and 10 m radius quadrats (10 per site). Dispersion indices were used to determine the 
distribution pattern of the disease on each of the reefs. Distribution of black band 
occurrence was clumped. In areas of high incidence of the disease, colonies which had 
been infected in 1991 were observed to become reinfected in 1992. There were 
distinct differences in the coral species infected between the three study reefs. Most 
notably, on Algae Reef black band disease was absent from all Montastrea annularis, 
the coral reported to be most susceptible to black band. Infected M. annularis was found 
at both Grecian Rocks and Key Largo Dry Rocks. Also infected were colonies of M. 
cavernosa, Diploria strigosa, Colpophyllia natans and Colpophyllia breviserialis. 


1992 0 

Lapointe, B. E., and M. W. Clark (1992) Nutrient inputs from the watershed and coastal 
eutrophication in the Florida Keys. Estuares . 15(4):465-76. 


350 





[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Widespread use of septic tanks in 
the Florida Keys increase the nutrient concentrations of limestone groundwaters that 
discharge into shallow nearshore waters, resulting in coastal eutrophication. This study 
characterizes watershed nutrient inputs, transformations, and effects along a land-sea 
gradient stratified into four ecosystems that occur with increasing distance from land: 
manmade canal systems (receiving waters of nutrient inputs), seagrass meadows, 
patch reefs, and offshore bank reefs. Soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP), the primary 
limiting nutrient, was significantly elevated in canal systems compared to the other 
ecosystems, while dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN; NH 4 + and N0 3 *), a secondary 
limiting nutrient, was elevated both in canal systems and seagrass meadows. SRP and 
NH 4 + concentrations decreased to low concentrations within approximately I km and 3 
km from land, respectively. DIN and SRP accounted for their greatest contribution (up 
to 30%) of total N and P pools in canals, compared to dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) 
and dissolved organic phosphorus (DOP) that dominated (up to 68%) the total N and P 
pools at the offshore bank reefs. Particulate N and P fractions were also elevated (up to 
48%) in canals and nearshore seagrass meadows, indicating rapid biological uptake of 
DIN and SRP into organic particles. Chlorophyll a and turbidity were also elevated in 
canal systems and seagrass meadows; chlorophyll a was maximal during summer when 
maximum watershed nutrient input occurs, whereas turbidity was maximal during 
winter due to seasonally maximum wind conditions and sediment resuspension. DO was 
negatively correlated with NH 4 + and SRP; hypoxia (DO < 2.5 mg L' 1 ) frequently 
occurred in nutrient-enriched canal systems and seagrass meadows, especially during 
the warm summer months. These findings correlate with recent (<5 yr) observations of 
increasing algal blooms, seagrass epiphytization and die-off, and loss of coral cover on 
patch and bank reef ecosystems, suggesting that nearshore waters of the Florida Keys 
have entered a stage of critical eutrophication. 


1992 0 

Ley, J. A. (1992) Influence of changes in freshwater flow on the use of mangrove prop root 

habitat by fishes. Ph. D. Dissertation. University Florida, Gainesville, FL. 171 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The hypothesis that seasonal 
changes in freshwater inflow (indicated by salinity) influence habitat use by fishes was 
tested in northeastern Florida Bay. Fishes were sampled monthly for 13 months using 
visual censuses and enclosure nets. Of the 305,589 individuals observed, 91% were 
estuarine residents, numerically dominated by engraulids, atherinids and 
cyprinodontids. Occasional marine and freshwater visitors comprised 2% of the 
individuals, and estuarine transients, 8%. No young-of-the-year estuarine transients 
were observed. Salinity ranged between 0.0 to 58 °/oo upstream, 19.5 to 54 °/oo 
midstream, and 30 to 50 °/oo downstream. The 77 species were grouped for analysis: 
small benthic, small water column, and larger fishes. Abundances of larger fishes were 
consistently lower upstream (0.15 fish nr 2 ), than mid- (0.65 fish nr 2 ), or downstream 
(0.55 fish rrr 2 ). Species of larger fishes numbered fewer upstream (11), than 
midstream (15), and downstream (22). Benthic and water column fish abundances did 
not vary along the gradient. Temporally, fish distribution was uncorrelated with 
salinity. Development of mangrove habitat and submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) 
were reduced upstream. Fish diets shifted to other foods upstream. Thus, where 
seasonal changes in freshwater inflow were greater (i.e. upstream), species and 
numbers of larger fishes were lower, possibly due to salinity conditions, food 
availability and habitat development. To determine if lower salinity conditions alone led 
to reduced predation, prey fishes were tethered along the gradient. Predator encounter 
rates were not different over the salinity range tested, but were 50% lower at the 
most remote sites. This was perhaps a function of accessibility of the sites to roving 
predators. Water management strategies to increase mangrove development and SAV 


351 


are recommended research priorities. However, severe ecotonal differences between 
Bay and ocean waters, coupled with limited circulation and significant predation may 
inhibit recruitment and survival of postlarval fishes from offshore. An unbroken 
continuum of good habitat from outer to upper reaches may be necessary if 
northeastern Florida Bay is to function as a prime nursery area for estuarine transient 
fishes. 


1992 

Machusak, D. D., and L. R. Kump (1994) Geochemistry of near-shore groundwaters, Fiesta 

Key, FL. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3):1079. 

In June 1992 five piezometers were installed along a 75 m shallow water transect 
offshore of a mangrove patch on Fiesta Key. At each well site a 5 cm dia. core was 
extracted using a rotary hydraulic drill, and a 2.5 cm dia. A PVC piezometer was 
installed. Four wells were cased to bedrock depths ranging from 75 cm to 140 cm with 
50 cm of screened interval. One shallow well was cased to 20 cm with 2.5 cm of 
screen. Wells were developed and sampled 24 hr after installation; well recovery was 
instantaneous. It is important to emphasize that the following results are preliminary 
and associated with initial well development. The majority of sampling will take place in 
mid-August 1992. Temperatures of sampled ground waters were consistently 27.0 ± 
0.2°C (1 - 3°C cooler than Florida Bay waters) with salinity values of 35 - 36 °/oo 
(38 °/oo for Bay water). All ground water samples contained a strong sulfidic odor. 
Ground water samples were also analyzed for alkalinity, pH, and Soluble Reactive 
Phosphate (SRP). Ground water alkalinity increased from 4.0 ± 0.1 meq L' 1 at 13 m 
away from the mangroves to 5.1 ±0.1 meq L' 1 at 72 m out. pH also increased from 7.3 
± 0.1 to 7.5 ± 0.1 at 13 and 72 m respectively. SRP followed a decreasing trend 
outward from the mangrove patch. At 13 m SRP measured 0.75 ^iM and decreased to 
0.45 ± 0.12 at 72 m out. The highest value for SRP, 0.88 ^M, was measured in the 
shallow well located at 20 m out. Ground water samples collected in August will also be 
analyzed for sulfide, N-species, F\ Cl*, S0 4 * 2 , Ca +2 , Mg +2 , and Na + . Cored materials 
represent Pleistocene patch reef deposits of coral and cemented shell hash and 
carbonate mud. In each of the four longer cores there are 1 - 5 cm thick highly porous 
zones (presumably of secondary origin) that contain light-colored coatings of carbonate 
precipitates. Other high porosity zones appear 'grungy' with coatings of darker 
material that may be associated with organic/inorganic processes. Cores will be 
examined using SEM, XRF and Microprobe techniques for comparison with aqueous 
determinations. At present there are insufficient data to suggest any definite 
conclusions, but it does appear that ground waters closest to the mangroves differ in 
measured alkalinity, pH, and SRP from those ground waters located at greater 
distances offshore. Continued study will elucidate these preliminary findings and it is 
hoped that inferences can be made about potential anthropogenic and/or natural ground 
water effects. 


1992 0 

McClanahan, T. R. (1992) Epibenthic gastropods of the Middle Florida Keys: the role of 
habitat and environmental stress on assemblage composition. J. Esd. Mar. Biol. EcoL 
160:169-90. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] A survey of epibenthic 
prosobranch gastropods was undertaken in both seagrass and hard substratum (coral or 
old reef rock) habitats on opposite sides of the Florida Keys (Florida Bay and Hawk 
Channel) to compare faunal differences attributable to differences in the above two 
habitats and environments. Additionally, two data sets (26 continuous months) of 
daytime dissolved oxygen, surface salinity and water temperature from Florida Bay 
(Long Key) and Hawk Channel (Key Largo) environments were compared to determine 
differences that might constitute environmental stresses likely to affect the fauna. The 


352 




above data were collected to determine if several hypotheses concerning effects of 
stress on organisms, assemblage, community and faunal composition were consistent 
with data on assemblage structure. These hypotheses were that: (1) stress should 
reduce the average size of organisms; (2) shorten food chains; (3) reduce predation 
intensity; (4) reduce species richness and diversity; and (5) increase the relative 
abundance of predator-susceptible ancestral species (i.e., Archaeogastropoda). Water 
quality data suggest that the two most likely forms of stress in deeper (> I m) areas of 
Florida Bay adjacent to the Keys are cold water temperatures associated with winter 
cold fronts and low predawn oxygen associated with warm summer temperatures, high 
salinity, and periodic algal and seagrass drift buildups. Seagrass sites had high 
population densities and low diversity due to the dominance of Astraea americana 
Gmelin (American star shell) in Florida Bay and Modulus modulus L. in Hawk Channel 
seagrass habitats. Florida Bay sites had high species richness on a small spatial scale, 
but Hawk Channel sites had more species and greater encounter rates of new species on 
a larger scale. Predawn oxygen measurements taken during July in four habitats were 
positively correlated with prosobranch species richness and diversity. Faunal data, 
analyzed on a population density basis, fit the above hypotheses of body size, trophic 
level, and evolutionary age of the species. Attempts to measure predation on an 
experimental prosobranch (A. americana) were unsuccessful but a tethering experiment 
with a sea urchin ( Echinometra lucunter L.) indicated higher predation in the less 
stressful Hawk Channel than Florida Bay hard substratum sites. Stress appears to 
reduce the abundance of higher trophic levels (both prosobranch and finfish predators) 
resulting in the dominance of ancestral forms not adapted to predation but tolerant of 
environmental stress. Eutrophication or increased oxygen demands in Florida Bay could 
result in further species richness and diversity declines. 


1992 0 

McClanahan, T. R., and N. A. Muthiga (1992) Comparative sampling methods for subtidal 

epibenthic gastropods. J. Esp. Mar. Biol. EcoL 164:87-101. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] A comparative survey of patchily 
distributed prosobranchs inhabiting seagrass and hard substratum (live, dead or 
Pleistocene coral) in both the Florida Bay and Hawk Channel environments of the Florida 
Keys was undertaken to compare a l-hr search versus a quadrat method (5 m' 2 ) of 
sampling. We tested the hypotheses that (1) there are differences in observer search 
ability and calculated community structure parameters, (2) large-bodied species will 
be over-sampled compared to small-bodied species, (3) abundant species will be under¬ 
sampled due to observer habituation towards abundant species, (4) individuals with 
cryptic or nocturnal habits will be under-sampled during daytime sampling, and (5) 
there are differences in search efficiency among habitats. Two independent observers 
using the search method had less than 20% variation in all community structure 
parameters and 10% variation in community composition similarity (Bray-Curtis 
Index) suggesting that observer-bias is small for experienced observers. In three 
habitats, Hawk Channel seagrass, Florida Bay seagrass and hard substratum, there was 
no evidence of over-sampling large-bodied species or of habituation to abundant 
species. In Hawk Channel hard substratum sites, Strombus gigas L. (Queen Conch) 
appeared to be the single species over-sampled due to its large body size, and some 
evidence suggests that Cerithium literatum Born, which buries itself in the sand, was 
under-sampled by the search method. Nocturnal sampling indicated that two species C. 
stratum Born and Marginalia apicina Menke may have been under-sampled in the Hawk 
Channel seagrass habitat during the daytime while no species appeared to be under¬ 
sampled in the Florida Bay site. These nocturnally active species were patchily 
distributed, produce population estimates with high variation, and, therefore, day-night 
population density comparisons were not statistically different. The search method 


353 



missed cryptic juveniles found by quadrat sampling. Search data displayed a greater 
pattern of central tendency, low coefficients of variation and more species encountered 
per unit effort in habitats with by population densities. Quadrat sampling data were 
right-skewed for low population density sites and had high coefficients of variation 
suggesting that estimates of population means by sample means may not be accurate 
when sampling only 5 m' 2 per replicate. Search sampling is cost effective in terms of 
data collected per unit of labor and appears to produce fairly reliable population 
estimates but data are in units of time spent searching versus preferred units of two- 
dimensional space. 


1992 

Meeder, J. F., R. Jones, J. J. O’Brien, M. S. Ross, R. J. Sawicki, and A. M. Strong (1994) 
Effects of Hurricane Andrew on Thalassia ecosystem dynamics and the stratigraphic 
record. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3):1080. 

Abnormally high bottom currents associated with Hurricane Andrew had significant, 
varied and localized impacts on 7ha/ass/a-dominated marine meadows. Extensive areas 
of Thalassia beds along the west side of Totten Key lost up to 80% of their cover. Most 
grass bed loss was by the removal of D-shaped divots of grass. These divots are up to 
8 m wide and considerably longer, often coalescing. The Thalassia root system may be: 
(1) attached at the flat side of the *D‘ (and overturned or frequently rolled up like a 
carpet); (2) detached and transported out of the system; or (3) redeposited in either 
its upright growth position or upside down. Preservation of such erosional remnants 
should make future chronostratigraphic interpretations of similar settings very 
difficult. Several ecosystem processes are documented: (1) Thalassia detritus and 
fine-grained sediments were winnowed from grass beds; (2) previously continuous 
Thalassia beds are broken up and eroded, increasing water depth up to 45%; (3) 
previously buried sediments and nutrients are made available at the watersediment 
interface; (4) bottom habitat diversity is increased; (5) Thalassia edge is increased; 
and (6) mass export or turnover of stored organic carbon and nutrients occurred. 
Greatest Thalassia loss was closest to shore. Since bottom deepening is associated with 
cover loss, perhaps island leeward channel origin and maintenance is also associated 
with scouring storm bottom currents. 


1992 

Smith, T. J., M. B. Robblee, H. R. Wanless, and T. W. Doyle (1994) Mangroves, hurricanes, 
and lightning strikes. BioScience . 44(4):256-62. 

This paper describes the effect of Hurricane Andrew on mangroves of South Florida. 
The hurricane passed north of Florida Bay and the mangrove forests and interior 
marshes of Cape Sable and northern Florida Bay suffered minor defoliation and 
occasional fine-branch breakage. In comparison, mangroves were 80 to 95% destroyed 
by trunk snapping and uprooting along the west coast mangrove forests of the 
Everglades National Park. 


1992 0 

Szmant, A. M., and A. Forrester (1992) Sediment and water column nitrogen and 
phosphorus distribution patterns in the Florida Keys: SEAKEYS. Abs., 1992 Symp. on 
Florida Keys Regional Ecosystem, November 16 - 20, Miami, FL. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Nutrient 
studies were initiated under SEAKEYS because of the concern that anthropogenic 
nutrients may be impacting Florida coral reefs. Both water column and sediment 
nutrients are being studied, with the latter emphasized because they integrate the 
longer-term nutrient dynamics of each area. Samples were collected along eight 
transects from passes or canals to offshore of the reef-line. The four transects off Key 


354 




Largo are in an area with the best present-day reef development; the two off Long Key 
are in an area with minimal patch reefs and where major passes allow Florida Bay 
water to flow onto the Florida reef platform. Two patterns of nutrient distribution 
emerged. Off Key Largo, and from Ohio to Looe Key, concentrations of N and 
chlorophyll-a were elevated near marinas and canals, but returned to oligotrophic 
levels within ca. 0.5 km of shore (e.g. chlorophyll-a £. 0.25 jig L' 1 ; N0 3 ' £. 0.25 jxm; 
NH 4 * £.0.10 jam). P concentrations, however, were often higher offshore. Sediment N 
and P were low and comparable to those of pristine reef areas. Sediment N was higher 
nearshore and decreased offshore; P concentrations varied little or exhibited the 
reverse pattern. Sediment N:P ratios were consistently lower offshore (1-10 vs. 20 
- 40 nearshore) indicating that N may be limiting to offshore algae. Low sediment 
nutrient content suggests that either supply of detrital material to reef tract sediments 
is low, or that remineralization rates are high. Higher offshore P0 4 ' 3 concentrations 
are attributed to periodic up welling along the shelf edge. The second distribution 
pattern was found in the ’middle keys’: Water column nutrients and chlorophyll-a were 
two times those in areas north and west of there. Sediment nutrients were higher also 
but nearshore and offshore areas did not differ. The middle keys are largely devoid of 
patch reefs and the offshore reefs are drowned ca. 5 m or more in depth. The higher 
sediment and nutrient efflux through the wide passes in this area (i.e. Shinn's inimical 
waters) are likely responsible for the lack of Holocene reef growth in this part of the 
Florida Keys. 


1992 . 

Tilmant, J. T., R. W. Curry, R. Jones, A. Szmant, J. C. Zieman, M. Flora, M. B. Robblee, D. 

Smith, R. W. Snow, and H. Wanless (1994) Hurricane Andrew's effect on marine resources. 
BiaScisnse, 44(4):230-7. 

Florida Bay has undergone dramatic changes in its seagrass beds since 1987 due to an 
unexplained seagrass dieoff. Before Hurricane Andrew, the decay of the stabilizing 
rhizome mat had left much of the bay vulnerable to erosion. For several months before 
the storm, bottom sediments had been disturbed and suspended and an area of milky 
green to brown water had persisted over much of the Bay. After Hurricane Andrew, 
the area appeared unchanged. From air and underwater observations, Florida Bay does 
not appear to have been affected directly by the storm. However, we expected eventual 
longer-term alterations to Florida Bay form nutrient increases associated with post¬ 
storm runoff. During the first few weeks after the storm, several reports of massive 
fish kills within the mangrove zone of the Everglades National Park and of an extermely 
strong smell of hydrogen sulfide over the west coast region were made. This suggests 
significant mortality during the storm or in relation to depleted oxygen levels 
associated with organic loading immediately afterward. Four weeks after the storm, no 
evidence of fish kills was found by the authors. Impact of the storm on loggerhead sea 
turtles, crocodile nests and the manatee population was minimal. 


1992 0 

Zieman, J. C., R. Davis, J. W. Fourqurean, and M. B. Robblee (1992) The role of climate in 
the Florida Bay seagrass dieoff. Abs., 1992 Symp. on Florida Keys Regional Ecosystem, 
November 16-20, Miami, FL. Bull. Ecol. Soc. America. , 73(2):398. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Since the fall 
of 1987, Florida Bay has experienced a major die-off of seagrasses and benthic 
macrophytes totaling tens of thousands of hectares. After several years, dieoff of 
Thalassia continued at a reduced rate, while colonization and growth of the colonizer 
Halodule became widespread. Anomalies in the recent climate record may have played a 
significant part in the dieoff initiation. Retrospective analysis of earlier data coupled 
with current studies show a large increase in seagrass biomass prior to the dieoff and a 


355 




decline in turnover rate or specific plant productivity during the dieoff. External stress 
in the form of hypersaline conditions (maximum salinities > 70, max. yearly station 
averages > 50 °/oo), which are partly anthropogenically derived, were prevalent 
during much of the dieoff. Climatic stresses are (1) excessively warm waters in the 
late summer and fall of 1986 - 1988, and 90, and (2) a reduction of historic tropical 
storm frequency and intensity. Increased temperatures and decreased day length in the 
fall negatively impact seagrass P/R. Historical and anecdotal evidence suggests a 
continuing shift over the past decades from a mixed habitat to an increasingly 
monospecific Thalassia community. While recolonization processes are establishing a 
more diverse mixture of habitats with the potential of enhanced secondary productivity 
in some areas, in 1992, major dieoff expansion has occurred in western Florida Bay. 


1993 0 

Barber, T. R., and P. R. Carlson (1993) Effects of seagrass die-off on benthic fluxes and 
porewater concentrations of XC0 2 , XH 2 S, and CH 4 in Florida Bay sediments. Proc., 10th 
Annual Meeting, Internatl. Society of Environmental Biogeochemistry. R. S. Oremland (ed.). 
530-50. 

[NO COPY OF PAPER AVAILABLE.] 


1 993 

Barkay, T., P. Vaithiyanatahn, R. Kavanaugh, E. Saouter, and C. J. Richardson (1994) Is 
there a role for eutrophication in methylmercury accumulation in the Florida Everglades? 
Abs., ASLO/PSA Joint Mtg., Miami, FL. a-4. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY.] One possible mechanism for the recently reported accumulation of 
Hg in fish in the Florida Everglades is the increased production of methylmercury in 
eutrophied wetlands. To test this hypothesis we collected peat samples along a 
phosphorus/hydrology gradient, created by the input of agricultural run-off, in Water 
Conservation Area 2A during the summer of 1993. Samples were analyzed for total Hg, 
P, N, C and H and for the potential rates of biological Hg(ll) methylation and CH 3 Hg(l) 
degradation. Preliminary results showed an inverse correlation between total P and Hg 
in the soils (r 2 = 0.95; P = 0.052; N = 4) and a positive relationship between soil total 
P and the ratio of potential methylation to demethylation rates (r 2 = 0.92; P < 0.05; N 
= 5). These results may suggest that (1) Hg accumulation is reduced in eutrophied soils, 
possibly as a result of enhanced rates of Hg mobilization and/or increased rates of peat 
accretion and hydrologic conditions, and (2) eutrophication increases net 
methylmercury production. These trends are currently being investigated by a more 
rigorous sampling regime. 


1993 0 

Hallock, P., and M. W. Peebles (1993) Foraminifera with chlorophyte endosymbionts: 
habitats of six species in the Florida Keys. Mar. Micropaleontoloqv . 20:277-92. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Three species, Androsina lucasi, 
Archaias angulatus, and Cyclorbiculina compressa, all members of the subfamily 
Araiasinae, are among the largest and most abundant benthic foraminifera in the Florida 
Keys. Each species harbors a different chlorophyte endosymbiont, and each species 
thrives in a different habitat. Androsina lucasi is the most euryhaline species. It is 
found in exceptional abundance in open, dwarfed-mangrove flats in water commonly 
less than 0.2 m in depth, growing on mangrove roots and propagules, and algae such as 
Batophora oerstedii. Archaias angulatus is moderately eurohaline, thriving at sites in 
Florida Bay and Largo Sound at depths less than 2 m, where temperatures range from 
14°C in winter to 33°C in summer and salinities range from 29 to 39 %o,. Substratum 
includes rubble, seagrass ( Thalassia testudinum), Halimeda and a variety of other 
macroalgae, especially when overgrown by epiphytes. Archaias is also common open 


356 



shelf and shelf-margin settings. Cyclorbiculina compressa is the most stenohaline, 
occurring in open shelf settings typically at depths of 5 - 30 m. Optimum habitat 
appears to be short (~ 1 cm) filamentous algal turf on limestone pavement reef rubble. 
Three other chlorophyte-bearing species, Broeckina/Parasorites orbitolitoides, 
Laevipeneroplis proteus and L. bradyi, are also common in this habitat. Chlorophyte- 
bearing taxa are the most abundant and diverse group of larger foraminifera in the 
Holocene western Atlantic. Despite widespread occurrence throughout the Tethyan 
region during the Miocene, this group is represented in the Holocene Indo-Pacific by 
only two species. The decline of this lineage in the Indo-Pacific and its success in the 
tropical western Atlantic is opposite of biogeographical trends typically reported for 
shallow-water tropical taxa through the Neogene. 


1993 0 

Paul, J. P., J. B. Rose, S. C. Jiang, C. A. Kellogg, and L. Dickson (1993) Distribution of 

viral abundance in the reef environment of Key Largo, Florida. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. . 

59(3) :71 8-24. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The distribution of viral and 
microbial abundance in the Key Largo reef environment was measured. Viral abundance 
was measured by transmission electron microscope direct counts and plaque titer on 
specific bacterial hosts in water and sediment samples from Florida Bay (Blackwater 
and Tarpon Sounds) and along a transect from Key Largo to the outer edge of the reef 
tract in Key Largo Sanctuary. Water column viral direct counts were highest in 
Blackwater Sound of Florida Bay (1.2 x 107 viruses mL* 1 ), decreased to the shelf 

break (1.7 x 106 viruses mL* 1 ), and were inversely correlated with salinity (r = 

-0.97). Viral direct counts in sediment samples ranged from 1.35 x 108 to 5.3 x 108 
cm* 3 of sediment and averaged nearly 2 orders of magnitude greater than counts in the 
water column. Viral direct counts (both sediment and water column measurements) 
exceeded plaque titers on marine bacterial hosts ( Vibrio natriegens and others) by 7 to 
8 orders of magnitude. Water column viral abundance did not correlate with bacterial 
direct counts or chlorophyll-a measurements, and sediment viral parameters did not 
correlate with water column microbial, viral, or salinity data. Coliphage, which are 
indicators of fecal pollution, were detected in two water column samples and most 

sediment samples, yet their concentrations were relatively low (<2 to 15 L* 1 for water 

column samples, and < 2 to 108 cm* 3 of sediment). Our findings indicate that viruses 
are abundant in the Key Largo environment, particularly on the Florida Bay side of Key 
Largo, and that processes governing their distribution in the water column (i.e., 
salinity and freshwater input) are independent of those governing their distribution in 
the sediment environment. 


1993 0 

Porter, D. (1993) Seagrass die-off in Florida Bay: the role of the marine slime mold, 
Labyrinthula. Bull. Ecol. Soc. Amer. . 74(Suppl. 2):397. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The seagrass, Thalassia 
testudinum (turtle grass) is the dominant member of the seagrass Community in Florida 
Bay, a large, carbonate sediment lagoonal system between the southern tip of 
peninsular Florida and the Florida Keys. The western portion of Florida Bay has been 
little influenced by the direct actions of human activities. However since 1988, large 
areas of dense seagrass meadows in this region have become defoliated resulting in 
massive die-off of T. testudinum. These die-off events are positively correlated with 
the presence of black, necrotic lesions in the leaves of the seagrass prior to die-off. 
The leaf necrosis is caused by a species of the marine slime mold Labyrinthula. As of 
January 1993, there have been no observed seagrass die-off episodes on the Atlantic 
Ocean side of the Florida Keys. However, similar leaf necrosis symptoms have been 


357 




observed recently in the seagrass meadows in Hawk Channel between the Keys and the 
coral reefs to the southeast. 


1993 0 

Snedaker, S. C. (1993) Impact on mangroves. Climatic Change in the Intra-Americas Sea . G. 

Maul (ed.). Edward Arnold, New York. 282-305 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Within the region, there are 
approximately 3,230,000 hectares of coastal shoreline dominated by mangrove 
vegetation which represents some 15% of the world inventory of mangroves. Unlike 
some parts of Asia, the mangroves of the region are not utilized in a sustainable 
manner although there are a variety of local uses, such as for timber, fuel and 
charcoal. In less populated areas, mangrove vegetation persists in a relatively 
undisturbed state. In populated areas, however, the habitat is used for the disposal of 
wastes, cleared for development projects, or exploited for other purposes, such as 
shrimp mariculture, all of which are incompatible with the sustainability of nearshore 
fisheries and environmental quality. In the context of global change, mangroves are 
more likely to be affected by changes in regional precipitation rather than by rising 
temperature and sea level. Specifically, mangrove areas that receive substantial 
precipitation and freshwater runoff are likely to persist, whereas mangrove areas 
exposed to full-strength seawater may be overstepped and lost. Because of the 
importance of intertidal mangroves in shoreline protection, fisheries support and water 
quality, efforts should be taken by the appropriate authorities and organizations to curb 
abuses and protect the resource for both ecological and economic purposes. Florida Bay 
is listed in the paper as one of the mangrove forests in the US. 


1993 0 

Van Lent, T. (1993) Towards the restoration of Taylor Slough. South Florida Natural 

Resources Center, Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 20 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] In this report, we have tried to 
describe in a clear and unambiguous manner why water levels, not surface water 
inflows, are the key to restoring Taylor Slough and its headwaters. The most tangible 
measure of hydrologic restoration is the extent to which natural water levels and 
inundation patterns are reproduced. If water levels are corrected, then the timing and 
distribution of flows in Taylor Slough and into Florida Bay will directly follow. We have 
outlined a proposed water management approach that specified target water levels at 
two locations as guidelines for the restoration of the Taylor Slough basin. These target 
water levels are based upon the hydrologic conditions observed at approximately the 
time when the Park was established. By making these stations respond to rainfall and 
reproduce the pattern of historical water levels, we contend that this is the most 
reliable way of reestablishing more natural water levels and flows throughout the 
basin. This proposal addresses two fundamental points: (1) it defines water level 
targets that are more like the estimated pre-project conditions, and (2) it 
reestablishes the traditional linkage between marsh water levels and rainfall. Our 
proposal does not specify exactly how these targets are to be met by operation of the 
regional water management system. Therefore, water managers will enjoy some 
flexibility in balancing the conflicting goals of flood control and water supply with the 
environmental requirements of Everglades National Park. This approach provides a 
tangible blueprint to meet the legislative mandate for minimum levels in the Everglades, 
and is a step toward restoring a more natural Everglades ecosystem. The most 
important points we wish to make in this brief report are the following. Water levels, 
not flow volumes, are the most tangible measure of hydrologic restoration. Restoring 
water levels will result in the restoration of both the timing and distribution of surface 
water flows in Taylor Slough and Florida Bay. The environmental requirements of 


358 



Everglades National Park should be given the same priority as flood control and water 
supply when operating the C&SF project, as required by Federal and State statutes. The 
most significant hydrologic changes to Taylor Slough are that: peak water levels have 
dropped in the eastern periphery of the Park because of flood control operations of the 
C&SF Project; dry season water levels have increased due to the South Dade 
Conveyance System operation; and water management near the Park boundary has 
resulted in a disconnection of water levels with rainfall; we have proposed a water 
management scheme for Taylor Slougll based upon water levels. The plan sets an 
average target level for two sites in the upper portion of Taylor Slough, and depends 
upon rainfall over the basin during the previous 52 weeks; this plan meets the letter 
and spirit of F. S. 373-042 requinng the South Florida Water Management District to 
set minimum levels for natural areas, and it moves toward restoration of natural 
wetland functioning. Increased pumping at S-332 is not a viable scheme for mimicking 
natural wetland functioning if water levels are not increased. When canal levels are 
low, the source of the water pumped at S-332 is Taylor Slough and the Roclcy Glades. 
When canal levels are low, much of the water pumped at S-332 flows directly back into 
the canal, and is simply recirculated. Thus the net benefit to Taylor Slough is low. 
Pumping whenever water is available is not likely to reproduce natural wetland 
response to rainfall. Unless marsh water level criteria are applied in conjunction with 
pumping, the increased pumping capacity will likely be used to harm Taylor Slough. This 
did occur during October and November of 1993, in violation of the three party 
agreement. 


1993 0 

Van Lent, T., R. Johnson, and R. Fennema (1993) Water management in Taylor Slough and 

effects on Florida Bay. Rep. SFRC 93-03. South Florida Research Center, Everglades 

National Park, Homestead, FL. 79 pp plus appendices. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Taylor Slough has historically 
been a major contributor of freshwater to Florida Bay. Since 1982, progressive 
lowering of canal stages in and near the headwaters of Taylor Slough has lowered 
water levels throughout southern Dade County, and probably reduced freshwater flow 
to Florida Bay. The primary purpose of this report is to inform Everglades National 
Park management about the effects of changing water management in the L-31N, L-31W 
and C- 111 canal systems on the Park’s water resources. The report also provides 
some recommendations on how to protect and improve the Park's water resources. The 
analysis is split into six parts. First, we document the operational rules of the water 
control structures along the eastern boundary of the Park along with their evolution, 
and their effect on water levels and flows in and near the Park. Second, we develop 
water budgets for the canals near the Park's eastern boundary, and demonstrate how 
current operational policies have resulted in significant drainage of the marshes west 
of L-31N and L-31W. Thirdly, we examine the Flood Control Project during several wet 
periods documenting operations to divert water from Taylor Slough into C-111. Fourth, 
we look at salinity in Florida Bay and how freshwater inflows affect the pattern of 
salinity. Fifth, we apply the Natural System Model and the South Florida Water 
Management Model to estimate freshwater flows to Florida Bay and how increasing 
canal stages will modify the inflow regime. Lastly, the report concludes with 
recommendations for water resources management to be pursued by Everglades 
National Park. 


1994 0 

Atkeson, T. D. (1994) Mercury in Florida's environment. Abs., ASLO/PSA Joint Mtg., 
Miami, FL. a-3. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] In 1989 a 
monitoring project by state agencies found Hg in large mouth bass from the Everglades 


359 


to average in excess of 2 jig g* 1 . Because of its potential neurotoxicity to humans, 
these findings led to issuance of Health Advisories to fishermen urging cessation of 
consumption of bass from the Everglades and limited consumption of several other 
species. Subsequent surveys have shown average Hg levels to exceed 0.5 ng g' 1 in the 
majority of freshwater lakes and streams in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain 
Provinces and down through the peninsular region and the issuance of advisories to 
limit consumption of bass from the effected waters. It also has been shown that Hg 
poses chronic dietary risks to the endangered Florida panther and high body burdens of 
Hg are common in wading birds formerly abundant in south Florida. Similar 
observations of increasing Hg levels in freshwater lakes and streams are apparent 
worldwide, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere. The causes of this general 
increase, much less the specific causes of the Florida problem, are not well understood. 
To elucidate the contributions of local, regional and global sources of Hg to Florida's 
environment, a multi-agency task force has initiated a research program to 
complement similar work elsewhere. Studies are underway or being planned to measure 
temporal trends in mercury in Florida’s environment, fine-scale monitoring of 
atmospheric Hg and deposition, and aquatic and wetland studies to define the pathways 
and processes of Hg accumulation in the Everglades food chain. 


1994 0 

Cubit, J. D. (1994) Global climate change and the importance of tidal flat ecosystems in the 

Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3): 1073. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY, DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Algae, corals, 
seagrasses and other living organisms actively construct and maintain extensive tidal 
flat structures in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean. The various types of tidal flats, 
including reef flats, algal flats, and seagrass flats, are important economically and 
ecologically. They rank among the world's most productive ecosystems and export 
much of their organic material to adjacent ecosystems. These biogenic structures of 
carbonate rock and consolidated sediment, covered by meadows of plants and sessile 
animals, function as foraging grounds, nursery areas, natural breakwaters and 
shoreline reinforcements. Models of global climate change predict considerable changes 
for the coastal environments of the Gulf and Caribbean, including rises in sea level, 
increases of water temperature, and more frequent hurricanes. Physical and 
geographic features of the Florida Bay and the Keys, such as the narrow tidal range and 
location in the "hurricane belt," would make this region particularly sensitive to the 
effects of global climate change. Long-term, integrated monitoring of natural variations 
of the physical environment and populations of algae, seagrasses, corals and other reef 
flat biota on the Caribbean coast of Panama demonstrate that changes in sea level and 
sea temperature can affect the distribution and abundance of these organisms, but the 
tidal flat communities as a whole should be able to maintain vertical rates of habitat 
accretion in pace with predicted rises in sea level until the middle of the next century. 
However, studies of the effects of a major oil spill at this site illustrate that such 
pollution can cause longer-term damage of the groups of biota essential for building 
tidal flat structures. Proper management to maintain the tidal flat ecosystems in the 
Gulf and Caribbean, including the diverse tidal flats of Florida Bay and the Keys, could 
mitigate much of the potential damage expected from global climate change, including 
erosion of shorelines, loss of endangered species habitats, destruction of developed 
property and reduction of fisheries. 


1994 0 

Durako, M. J., and K. M. Kuss (1994) Effects of Lybyrinthula infection on the 
photosynthetic capacity of Thalassia testudinum. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3):727-32. 


360 




[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Blackened, necrotic lesions on 
Thalassia testudinum leaves are frequently associated with seagrass die-off in Florida 
Bay. A previously undescribed species of the marine slime mold, genus Labyrinthula, is 
the primary causal agent of these lesions. When Labyrinthula infection was present, 
variations in lesion coverage resulted in significant differences in dry-weight based 
photosynthesis versus irradiance (P/I) responses of Thalassia leaf tissue, reducing 
photosynthetic capacity and oxygen output. Maximum photosynthetic rate, P max , 
decreased to below zero when lesions covered 25% or more of the leaf tissue. In 
addition, respiration rates in infected leaves were up to three times greater than in 
adjacent, uninfected tissue. Alpha (a), the initial slope of the P/I relationship, exhibited 
little change with low lesion coverage but was usually reduced with higher lesion 
coverage. These results show that the presence of Labyrinthula lesions impair 
photosynthesis of Thalassia leaf tissues and might reduce oxygen available for 
transport to below ground tissues, possibly making Thalassia more susceptible to 
hypoxia and sulfide toxicity. Thalassia shoots were collected in Johnson Key Basin, 
Rabbit Key Basin, Rankin Lake and Sunset Cove. 


1994 0 

Fong, P., and M. A. Harwell (1994) Modeling seagrass communities in tropical and 

subtropical bays and estuaries: a mathematical model synthesis of current hypotheses. 

Bull. Mar. ScL 54(3):757-81. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] A preliminary simulation model 
was generated to predict changes in the biomass of five components of the autotrophic 
seagrass community that dominates tropical and subtropical bays and estuaries. 
Changes in productivity and biomass are based on relationships among three species of 
seagrass ( Thalassia testudinum, Halodule wrightii, and Syringodium filiforme), 
epiphytes attached to seagrass, macroalgae, and several environmental factors, 
including light, temperature, salinity, sediment nutrients, and water-column nutrient 
concentrations. These relationships were derived from the published literature and 
include both experimental data and current alternative hypotheses. The model predicts 
that Thalassia is the community dominant under "normal" bay or estuarine conditions in 
tropical and subtropical regions, including high solar insolation, intermediate levels of 
seasonal variability in temperature and salinity, and low water-column and 
intermediate-to-high sediment nutrient concentrations. Increasing the supply of 
nutrients to the water column stimulates the productivity of epiphytes on seagrass, 
resulting in decreased light to seagrass blades and less Thalassia productivity. 
Thalassia and epiphyte biomass undergo seasonal changes in abundance; however, 
epiphyte biomass lags Thalassia by about 40 days. Halodule dominates when sediment 
nutrients are high and when there are environmental extremes of temperature and 
salinity. Syringodium is the community dominant in areas with more oceanic influence, 
characterized by less variability in salinity and temperature and lower water-column 
and sediment nutrients. This model is still in an early developmental stage. Preliminary 
sensitivity analyses identified important factors for community productivity and 
composition. The most important model parameters or seagrass include the 
productivity/biomass relationships, differential tolerances to extreme salinities, and 
the P/I curves (especially for Thalassia). All of the relationships between 
environmental factors and epiphytes are important, and these are the least certain 
derivations. We need to conduct a thorough sensitivity analysis, validate the model with 
field data, and generate more information on the algal components of the community. 
This simple community model will eventually be expanded to simulate seagrass 
dynamics across a spatial domain. Data from Florida Bay seagrass studies is discussed 
in this paper. 


361 



1994 

Frankovich, T. A., J. W. Fourqurean, and R. D. Jones (1994) Epiphyte loads and seagrass 
C:N:P ratios as indicators of nutrient availability. Abs., ASLO/PSA Joint Mtg., Miami, FL. 
a-27. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY.] Epiphyte levels on seagrasses have been shown to be good 
indicators of nutrient availability in the environment. The elemental composition of 
seagrasses has also been used to assess relative nutrient supply. The validity of these 
factors in the assessment of relative nutrient availability across a regional scale was 
determined. During the winter of 1994, total epiphyte loads, epiphyte chlorophyll and 
the C:N:P ratios of the leaves of Thalassia testudinum was measured at each of 24 
sites within Florida Bay, a shallow marine embayment located at the southern tip of 
Florida. Multivariate and univariate statistical analyses were performed on these data 
and nutrient concentration data collected from each site during the study period to test 
for correlations among measured water column nutrients and one two potential 
biological proxies of nutrient avalability. 


1994 0 

Frewin, N. L. (1994) The distribution of organic matter in a dynamic carbonate sedimentary 

system, Florida Bay. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3): 1075. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Sedimentary 
organic matter (OM) has been recovered from a Recent carbonate mudmound 
environment. Input sources have been identified via chemical characterization of the 
soluble OM fractions. Use of these chemical markers as tracers has provided 
confirmation of a sedimentary process model previously based on facies distribution. 
Twenty-two cores were taken from the windward leeward aspects of mudmounds in 
Florida Bay. Solvent soluble OM fractions have been analyzed using gas 
chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GC/MS) and solvent resistant OM fractions using 
pyrolysis GC/MS. This study has resulted in the recognition of distinctive chemotypes 
(chemical markers thought to have been derived from a particular OM source), 
revealing clear variations on a centimeter to kilometer scale. Changes are primarily 
caused by proximity to source, sedimentary facies variation and sediment reworking 
through bioturbation or storm processes. In particular, the preservation potential of 
higher plant (i.e. seagrass and mangrove) cuticular material within the sediments is 
clarified through the chemical characterization of the external membrane. The Holocene 
submergence curve was formulated from Florida Bay stratigraphy by Scholl et al. 
(1969). This study highlighted the importance of backstepping vegetation types during a 
transgression where there is a shift from freshwater to transitional to marine 
organo-facies. The relatively simple vegetational succession of Florida Bay makes it 
particularly sensitive to sea level interpretation. The selective use of organic chemical 
markers enables us to 'fingerprint' organo-facies change, even when the recognizable 
particulate fraction has been removed through taphonomic processes. 


1994 0 

Ginsburg, R. N., and E. A. Shinn (1994) South Florida's environments are geological 
inheritances: the past is the key to the present. Bull. Mar, Sci. . 54(3): 1975. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The geography 
and bathymetry of South Florida's marine and terrestrial environments are inherited 
from geologic events extending back millions of years. The interactions of these 
physiographic subdivisions with marine communities and hydrography during the past 
several hundred thousand years has produced today's characteristic biotas, sediments, 
and local topography of reefs and shoals. The template for all of South Florida began to 
form as a platform of shallow-water calcareous deposits nearly 600 m thick dating 
back some 200 million years to the Jurassic Period. Some tens of millions of years 


362 




ago, a dramatic change in deposition began that transformed the regime of the 
calcareous platform into one of siliceous sands and clays. This geologic revolution was 
the result of the southward spread of siliceous deposits derived from the Appalachian 
Mountains and distributed by rivers and movement along shorelines. The template, fully 
formed when the Gulf Stream-Florida Current system developed some 10 to 15 Ma, had 
shaped the southeast margin of the siliceous deposits into the gentle curve that is now 
surmounted by the Florida Keys and offshore reefs. The return of the calcareous 
deposit regime that would form the Florida Keys, the mainland, and surrounding shallow 
sea floors came with the onset of glaciation in the Northern Hemisphere. During a 
highstand of sea level about 125 ka, coral reefs and their associated calcareous 
deposits that are now the Upper and Middle Florida Keys accumulated preferentially 
along the southeast edge of the previously deposited siliceous sediments. At about the 
same time, an arc of calcareous sand banks and tidal channels grew from Ft. Lauderdale 
to Homestead and Flamingo and formed the present southernmost Atlantic Coastal Ridge. 
Farther south, similar sand banks accumulated and now form the low-relief limestone 
islands from Big Pine Key to Key West and the Marquesas. The topography of reefs and 
sand shoals was fossilized by cementation that occurred when they were above sea 
level for some 110,000 yrs. Then, a rising sea progressively began to flood the 
limestone landscape at about 8 ka. A new rim of reefs and shoals formed seaward of the 
Keys, and on the western, protected side of the Upper Keys, shallow Florida Bay and 
Barnes and Card Sounds were born. The major physiographic and hydrographic 
environments - the Florida reef tract, Biscayne Bay, and Florida Bay—are the large- 
scale template inheritances, but there are smaller scale ones as well. For example, two 
of the major subdivisions of the modern reef tract, the areas seaward of the Upper and 
Middle Keys, are determined by the degree of continuity of the islands formed 125 ka. 
Where an island is linear such as Key Largo, the offshore reef tract is shielded from the 
inhospitable waters of Florida Bay, and reef communities flourish. Where islands are 
discontinuous as in the Middle Keys, tidal exchange between the Gulf of Mexico and 
Atlantic Ocean produces a mobile sand substrate unfavorable for the establishment of 
corals and associated reef builders. In addition, the inter-island channels allow 
discharges of inhospitable waters from shallow, restricted Florida Bay to reach the 
reef tract, which further deter development of reefs offshore. These factors, the 
mobile sand substrate from cross-shelf tidal currents and the inimical waters from 
Biscayne Bay, may explain the absence of significant reef development seaward of the 
Safety Valve south of Key Biscayne. 


1994 0 

Gorte, R. W. (1994) The Florida Bay economy and changing environmental conditions. CRS 
Report for Congress. 94-435 ENR. Congressional Reserch Service, The Library of 
Congress. 19 pp. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Florida Bay is a large, triangular 
coastal lagoon located at the southern tip of Florida, between Everglades National Park 
and the Florida Keys. Substantial changes in the vegetation of this shallow saltwater 
bay have occurred within the past decade. The mangroves that ring the mudflat islands 
are dying. The seagrass that carpets much of the Bay began dying in 1987, and the 
dieoff now affects nearly a quarter of the Bay. This seagrass dieoff is linked to blooms 
of blue-green algae that are, in turn, linked to a sponge dieoff. Finally, diatom blooms 
have become increasingly common in the western portions of the Bay since 1979. Many 
are concerned that these changes in the vegetation of Florida Bay are affecting the 
resident fauna. Florida Bay contains resident and transient populations of bottlenose 
dolphins and provides habitat for the endangered manatee, several endangered sea 
turtle species, and along the north shore, the endangered American crocodile. The Bay 
provides feeding and nesting habitat for many bird species, but the number of ospreys 
and of wading bird colonies has declined. The Bay also provides nursery grounds for 


363 


many species of finfish and shellfish, as well as habitat for other life stages for some 
species. The Bay's finfish and shellfish are important foundations for the two major 
industries in adjacent Monroe County: commercial fishing and tourism. To date, the 
only measurable economic losses that coincide with the vegetation change are in 
commercial fishing, principally from the substantial decline in pink shrimp harvests. 
The losses since 1986, including indirect and induced effects, total about 500 jobs and 
$32 million in annual personal income. However, commercial harvests of spiny lobster, 
snappers, and groupers with about 12,800 primary and secondary jobs and $20 million 
in personal income are threatened by the vegetative changes. Tourism is also 
threatened by the vegetative changes in Florida Bay. It appears that tourism accounts 
for about a quarter of the Monroe County economy 12,000 jobs and $200 million in 
personal income. The threat is less direct than with commercial fishing, but is 
nonetheless real. The algae and diatom blooms have reduced water clarity in an area 
previously favored by recreational divers because of its pristine waters. The Bay 
provides habitat for several important sport finfish, such as spotted seatrout and red 
drum. The changes in the Bay may also threaten the ocean-side coral reefs that attract 
sport divers. The imprecision in estimating the tourism economy and in linking it with 
he vegetative changes makes it difficult to estimate the potential economic effects. 
Nonetheless, the changes are apparent to tourists and are attracting national attention 
as an example of ecosystem degradation. Losing a quarter of tourists and seasonal 
residents is certainly possible. Such a decline would threaten thousands of jobs and tens 
of millions of dollars in personal income probably exceeding the potential losses 
associated with a decline in comercial fishing. Furthermore, because changes in tourism 
are likely to lag behind changes in environmental quality, losses in the tourist economy 
are likely to persist, even if vegetation in the Bay were to recover quickly. Finally, 
economic declines would reduce local property values and tax collections. 


1994 0 

Mclvor, C. C., J. A. Ley, and R. D. Bjork (1994) Changes in freshwater inflow from the 
Everglades to Florida Bay including effects on biota and biotic processes: a review. In: 
Everglades: The Ecosystem and Its Restoration . S. M. Davis and J. C. Ogden (eds.) St. Lucie 
Press, Delray Beach, FL. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The freshwater Everglades and 
estuarine Florida Bay ecosystem are closely linked by marine and freshwater 
hydrologic cycles and by organisms that depend on both systems during different times 
of the year or periods of their life cycles. Impounding of water in the Water 
Conservation Areas and diversion of water away from Shark River Slough and Taylor 
Slough for purposes of urban use and flood control have significantly reduced the 
volume of fresh water to Florida Bay. As a result, bay waters are now more saline in 
more locations and for longer periods of time than under premanaged conditions. The 
filling of passes and shallow banks between several of the Keys for construction of the 
Flagler Railroad in the early 1900's reduced circulation in Florida Bay, thereby 
exacerbating anthropogenically generated salinity anomalies. Delivery of fresh water 
to Florida Bay differs from premanaged conditions in both volume and timing. Numerous 
effects on biota and biotic processes in the Bay and southern Everglades ecotone have 
been documented or implicated, including reduced recruitment of pink shrimp, snook, 
and redfish; lowered reproductive success of ospreys and great white herons; and 
shifts in distribution of West Indian manatees, American crocodiles, and many of the 
wading birds that historically nested in the estuarine ecotonal area. One species, 
however, the gray snapper (Iwutbanus gnseus), exhibits enhanced recruitment in years 
of higher salinity in Florida Bay. Reduced freshwater inflow is also implicated as one of 
a complex series of factors in the mass mortality of seagrasses in the Bay that has 
occurred since 1987. Similarly, hypersalinity is likely a factor in dieback of 


364 



mangroves in some Florida Bay localities. Excessive amounts and unnatural timing of 
freshwater delivery can also adversely affect biota. A sudden release of greatly 
elevated volumes of fresh water from the C-111 canal resulted in the mortality of 
many estuarine organisms in Manatee Bay when salinities dropped from near marine to 
zero in a few hours and remained low for an 8-day period. These observations provide 
powerful evidence that productivity of Florida Bay is declining under current 
management practices. 


1994 0 

Philips, E. J., and S. Badylak (1994) Spatial and temporal variability in phytoplankton 
standing crop and composition in Florida Bay, Florida, USA. Abs., ASLO/PSA Joint Mtg., 
Miami, FL. a-57. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Spatial and 
temporal patterns of phytoplankton standing crop and composition in Florida Bay were 
studied at thirteen sampling stations. Significant spatial differences were observed 
supporting the hypothesis that the Bay is composed of a number of ecologically distinct 
regions. The highest standing crops of planktonic algae and cyanobacteria were found in 
the central-interior region of the bay, where the cyanobacteria Synechococcus 
dominated the planktonic assemblage. Chlorophyll-a concentrations up to 40 mg rrr 3 
were observed in this region, and Synechococcus comprised over 90% of total 
phytoplankton biovolume. In other regions of the Bay, total chlorophyll a concentrations 
were significantly lower and diatoms and dinoflagellates were the dominant taxa in 
terms of biovolume. However, nutrient enrichment bioassays indicated the possibility 
of P, N and/or N-P co-limitation during certain periods of time. 


1994 0 

Reese, C. J., and L. L. Richardson (1994) Pigment and spectral analysis of seagrass and 

algal blooms in Florida Bay. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3): 1082. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The 
relationship between pigments and reflectance spectra of seagrasses and phytoplankton 
from numerous basins in Florida Bay is being studied. Both filtered and concentrated 
samples have been collected for organism identification, enumeration, and chlorophyll 
fluorescence. Measurement of total absorbance, chlorophylls, carotenoids and phaeo- 
pigments from whole cell extractions are made on a Shimadzu spectrophotometer. 
Separation and identification of specific pigments are performed with a Hewlett 
Packard 1090 HPLC run in reverse phase. Surface reflectance (368 to 1160 nm in 2 nm 
increments) is measured with a Spectron Model SE590 spectroradiometer. Second and 
fourth derivative spectra of the total absorbancy from the extracted pigment samples 
have been compared with derivatives of surface reflectance spectra of the sampled 
basin. Although total absorbancy and reflectance spectra derivatives are similar for 
the predominant seagrass Thalassia testudinum, and a vast (11 km dia.) algal bloom 
composed principally of planktonic diatoms, the data suggest regions of the visible 
spectrum which may be useful in satellite interpretation of Florida Bay algal and 
seagrass dynamics. 


1994 0 

Rudnick, D. T. (1994) Interactions of salinity and nutrient cycling in Florida Bay. Abs., 
ASLO/PSA Joint Mtg., Miami, FL. a-64. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Recent 
environmental problems in Florida Bay, including seagrass dieback, persistent 
phytoplankton blooms, and declining fisheries yields, have been attributed to both 
increased salinity and nutrient enrichment. Increased salinity is the result of water 
management practices that have decreased freshwater flow into the Bay. Nutrient 


365 



enrichment is generally attributed to external loading from the Gulf of Mexico and the 
Florida Keys and to interloading from detrital decomposition following seagrass 
mortality. However, nutrient loading and salinity are not independent; both chemical 
and biological aspects of nutrient biogeochemistry can be affected by salinity. Nutrient 
sorption to sediments can be directly affected by ionic strength. This may be 
particularly important in the Bay if P binding by carbonate particles is affected. In the 
Bay's adjacent wetlands, salinity can alter biological processes such as nutrient 
assimilation by mangroves and decomposition. Nutrient export from these wetlands 
may thus have changed because of salinity intrusion. 


1994 0 

Shinn, E. A., B. H. Lidz, and M. W. Harris (1994) Factors controlling distribution of Florida 

Keys reefs. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3): 1084. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Regional and 
area-specific high-resolution seismic profiling, combined with core drilling and analysis 
of aerial photography, indicates that the distribution of Florida's reefs is regulated by 
two factors. The primary control is Pleistocene topography, created before Holocene 
sea-level rise (conversion of landscape to seascape). The secondary influence is water 
quality, which has progressively changed with rising sea level and changing seascape. A 
regional sequence of flooding, patterns resulting from sea-level rise, is shown by 
converting contoured structural maps of the underlying Pleistocene limestone into 
paleoshoreline maps. The maps show that: (1) the area of the reef tract off the Lower 
Florida Keys flooded sooner than that off the Upper Keys, suggesting that Holocene reef 
growth began first off the Lower Keys; (2) the major offshore reefs formed around 
offshore islands, probably as fringing reefs, and became bank reefs as sea level arose; 
and (3) rising sea level created wide passes through the Lower and Middle Keys, 
allowing influx of inimical Florida Bay and Gulf of Mexico waters onto the reef tract 3 
to 4 ka and causing senility in major Holocene reefs opposite the passes. Detailed 
seismic mapping of the reef tract in a portion of the Key Largo National Marine 
Sanctuary off north Key Largo shows that at about 6 to 7 ka a linear chain of barrier 
islands (Pleistocene outlier reefs) extended along the edge of the platform margin from 
The Elbow to French Reef. Rising sea level caused flooding of the platform through 
prominent bedrock depressions south of The Elbow and between French and Molasses 
Reefs, creating a linear, protected embayment. Corals recruited to a bedrock terrace 
within the embayment and flourished, forming 14-m-thick linear Holocene reefs, such 
as Grecian Rocks and Key Largo Dry Rocks. With further rise in sea level, coral patches 
became established at Mosquito Bank in a bedrock depression within Hawk Channel. At 
about the same time, marine sediments began to fill a 600-m-diameter sinkhole near 
Key Largo Dry Rocks. Surprisingly, coral growth along the outlier-reef islands did not 
lead to major Holocene accumulations at the edge of the platform margin, and reefs 
such as The Elbow, French, and Molasses are thin (~1 m thick) and are considered 
geologically senile. These observations are consistent with new data from the Great 
Barrier Reef of Australia, which also show that older and thicker reef accumulations 
occur on lagoonal topographic highs rather than on the offshore barrier. 


1994 0 

Smith, T. J., and M. B. Robblee (1994) Relationships of sport fisheries catches in Florida 
Bay to freshwater inflow from the Everglades. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3): 1084. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Principal 
components analysis was used to characterize inflow to Florida Bay from Shark River 
Slough and Taylor Slough. Four components described >71% of the variation in inflow. 
The components clearly separated summer-fall inflow from winter-spring inflow. 
Additionally the pattern of variation in inflow was more complex in Taylor Slough than 


366 




in Shark River Slough. Regression analysis was used to relate individual species catch 
rates for gray snapper, spotted seatrout, red drum and common snook to the principal 
components of inflow. Highly significant (P < 0.05) regression models were developed 
and verified for all species. Increased runoff in the winter led to decreased catches of 
snapper, seatrout and snook. Above average summer and fall runoff led to increased 
catches of red drum, seatrout, and snook but decreased catch of snapper. Management 
practices need to consider not only the volume of water but the timing of delivery to 
the estuary to ensure fishery yields in the future. 


1994 0 

Strong, A. M., R. J. Sawicki, and G. T. Bancroft (1994) Estimating white-crowned pigeon 

population size from flight-line counts. J. Wildl. Manage. . 58(1):156-62. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The white crowned pigeon 
(Columba leucocephala) is a threatened species in Florida, yet there are no population 
estimates nor are there methodologies available for estimating population size. During 
the 1991 nesting season we developed a nondisruptive technique for estimating the 
nesting population of white crowned pigeons in the upper Florida keys. Using radio 
telemetry and automatic cameras we determined that breeding males returned to 
nesting keys later in the morning than do nonbreeding birds (P = 0.001). We studied the 
relationship between number of incoming birds and number of nests on 14 keys by 
conducting total nest counts and flight-line counts during 0810 - 1300 (mean arrival 
time for breeding males ±2 SD). We examined 78 regression equations using all possible 
10-min increments of time intervals >90 min and found that the number of birds 
arriving during 0820 - 1010 was the best predictor of number of nests on a key (P < 
0.001). We counted incoming birds from 0820 - 1010 on 43 keys in Florida Bay, Card 
Sound, and Florida Straits. For each of the 43 keys we entered the number of incoming 
birds into a regression equation and estimated the breeding population to be 4,880 nests 
(95% Cl = 2,115 < 4,880 <_7,905 nests). We estimated an additional 175 nests at the 
remaining nesting areas for a total breeding population estimate of 5,055 nests. This 
technique should be applicable in other areas where white-crowned pigeons occur. 


1994 0 

Tedesco, L. P. (1994) Vertical fluxes resulting from bioirrigation: the significant effect of 

deep burrowing arthropods. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3):1086. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Deep burrowing 
arthropods ( Callianassa, Alpheus, and Upogebia) are prevalent vertical advectors of 
sediment throughout the shallow marine bays, lagoons and the reef-tract of South 
Florida. Their thumb-sized open burrow complexes commonly extend more than a meter 
into the subsurface. During burrow excavation and feeding, these crustaceans expel 
suspension-sized sediment to the depositional interface. Expelled sediment is 
overwhelmingly less than 175 nm in settling diameter and represents grains swept up 
and out of the burrow by currents generated by the shrimp. Expelled sediment may be 
the finer-grained sediment from the original substrate in the case of deposit feeders or 
waste from suspension trapping during filter feeding. Large storms and hurricanes 
erode, resuspend and transport surficial sediments that infill open burrow complexes. 
Storm infilling from the surface is with a mixture of traction-bedload-sized grains and 
mud. Burrow excavation and feeding effectively transports deeply buried (> 1 m) 
sediments, including particulate and surface adsorbed pollutants, to the depositional 
interface while storm infilling transports surficial sediment deep into the subsurface. 
Initial calibration of rates of burrow excavation and infilling using 210 P b 
geochronologies in Biscayne Bay, demonstrate vertical particle advection rates 
sufficiently fast to recycle 15 - 25% of the upper I to 1.5 m of deposit over 100 yr 
time scales. Deep burrowing arthropods are present throughout Biscayne Bay, the reef 


367 




tract and the more normal marine portions of Florida Bay. Vertical advection of 
particles by their burrowing and feeding behavior coupled with storm infilling of their 
burrows represents a major pathway for large-scale particle and pollutant transport. 


1994 0 

Tomasco, D. A., B. E. Lapointe (1994) An alternative hypothesis for the Florida Bay 

seagrass die-off. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3): 1086. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] A large die-off 
of the subtropical seagrass Thalassia testudinum has recently occurred in Florida Bay. 
Currently, it is the belief of many researchers that human activities other than 
freshwater divergence had little role in the initiation of this die-off. Elevated salinities 
(>50 °/oo) and water temperatures are thought to be involved with die-off. Previous 
work indicates that T. testudinum has an optimum salinity of about 30 °/oo, with 
reductions in productivity above and below this level. However, when the die-off areas 
are overlain on salinity isopleths it is apparent that die-off areas are not centered 
around areas of highest salinities. In Laguna Madre, a negative estuary similar to 
Florida Bay, Thalassia testudinum is found in areas with salinities above 40 - 45 %o, 
well above values found in most (not all) areas of die-off in Florida Bay. It is the belief 
of the authors that there is little evidence that suggests high salinities were important 
in bringing about the die-off of T. testudinum in Florida Bay, as has been previously 
suggested. Therefore, not only would reestablishment of historical freshwater flows 
into northeast Florida Bay increase nutrient loads into that area (due to anthropogenic 
nutrient enrichment of discharged water), there is not much promise that this activity 
would lessen the chance of later seagrass die-offs. However, high temperatures 
(perhaps related to high water column chlorophyll levels) might be an important 
component to die-off. What seems more clear is that areas of Florida Bay that 
experienced later die-off are characterized by higher biomass than areas where die-off 
did not occur. In addition, these areas of already high biomass had experienced recent 
large increases in above ground biomass prior to die-off. This leaves the question of 
how did such an increase in biomass occur? A review of the literature suggests two 
ways to bring about an increase in seagrass biomass: increase the available light, and 
increase the sediment nutrient supply. This paper will address the potential role of both 
increased light levels and increased sediment nutrient levels in triggering the die-off of 
Thalassia testudinum in Florida Bay. 


1994 0 

Wang, J. D. (1994) Circulation in Florida Bay. Florida Coastal Ocean Sciences Symp. April 

1994. University of Miami, Miami, FL. 42. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Surface 
elevation and salinity data obtained from the Marine Monitoring Network of the 
Everglades National Park were used to explore the causal relationships between 
forcings and hydrodynamic response in Florida Bay. Astronomical tides entering the 
Bay from the Gulf of Mexico are primarily diurnal. The tides are strongly damped as 
they move eastward into the Bay. Model analysis indicates that the damping is 
primarily due to the horizontal constrictions imposed by mudbanks and islands, although 
bottom friction in the shallow depths of the Bay is also important. Associated with the 
damping of the tidal waves is a mean sealevel setup which has been estimated to be 
about 1 to 2 cm. It is plausible that this mean sealevel setup gives rise to a net flow out 
of the Bay to the south, through the passes between the Florida Keys. The Bay's 
hydrodynamic response appears to be dominated by three time scales. The astronomical 
tides, 1/2 to 1 day; seabreeze, 1 day; winter winds, 3 to 4 days; and 14 day lunar 
tidal components. Much of the wind response appears to be due to propagation of coastal 
sea level changes on the West Florida Shelf into Florida Bay. The energetics of the long 


368 



period tidal response appears to be similar to that of the wind response. To begin 
addressing issues relating to how much freshwater is reaching the Bay, and to 
investigate the usefulness of freshness as a tracer, some simple analysis of salinity is 
presented. Rainfall within the catchment is not sufficient to produce the observed 
salinity variations. Freshwater releases from canal structures at the catchment 
boundaries are therefore important and appear to have been similar in magnitude to the 
direct runoff volume over the last 10 yrs. For an idealized l-day approximation of 
Northeast Florida Bay, a net evaporation rate (evaporation minus groundwater seepage) 
of approximately 0.5 cm/day is found from observed salinity variations in the Bay. The 
makeup water for this evaporation causes transports that vary linearly from the south 
to the north and attain a value of approximately 100 m 2 /day at a distance of 20 km 
from the edge of the Everglades. With an average depth of 1.5 m, this corresponds to a 
net speed of 67 m/day or 2000 m/month. The rate of salinity increase HdS/dt under 
evaporative conditions, i.e. when rainfall and runoff are zero, is approximately 0.16 
pptm/day. 


994 0 

Wanless, H. R., L. P. Tedesco, D. Cottrell, and M. G. Tagett (1994) Holocene environmental 

history of carbonate banks in Florida Bay and Biscayne Bay, south Florida. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 

54(3): 1 087. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Florida Bay is 
underlain by a gently westward sloping limestone surface which rising sea level 
transgressed between 4,500 and 3,000 yrs ago. Subtle irregularities in the limestone 
topography defined landward-penetrating peat-filled sloughs and temporary shore 
buildups (coastal levees). These peat and levee deposits, though now transgressed and 
dissected, served as a defining control on the patterns of subsequent growth of 
carbonate sand and mud banks. Portions of many islands are remnants. Skeletal sand 
and mud banks in Biscayne Bay either extend from gaps in the seaward limestone ridge 
(Featherbed Banks and Caesar's Creek Bank) or are positioned bayward of the 
protection of a shallowly submerged limestone ridge (Safety Valve). The carbonate mud 
banks in central Florida Bay and Biscayne Bay are either transgressed coastal deposits 
or marine carbonate banks built by the physical bank growth, extension and migration. 
The internal stratigraphy of the marine carbonate banks record pulses of physical 
growth followed by seagrass recolonization. Each physical growth pulse contains a 
basal erosion or smothering surface, covered by 1 - 10 cm of coarse skeletal sand and 
gravel (if available) and mud clasts. This is overlain by 1 - 10 cm of layered skeletal to 
peloidal sand which normally fines upwards. A 10 - 120 cm unit of layered mud (to fine 
sand in more exposed settings) forms the bulk of each physical growth pulse. Banks are 
extending/migrating southward and westward by repetitive pulses of physical banks 
growth. Banks tend not to form in the lee of emergent islands. We interpret these 
physical pulses of sedimentation to record a hurricane-level storm initiation (scour, 
smothering, gravel and layered sand) followed by years of layered mud sedimentation 
by winter storms. Gradual seagrass recolonization helps to stabilize the banks but 
appears to play little role in bank growth. The broad carbonate banks in western Florida 
Bay have resulted from the coalescence of smaller banks as interbank bays filled with 
sediment. Bay infillings are commonly associated with persistent seagrass cover and 
community. Both the narrow and broad banks tend to build towards and into the 
intertidal zone. This is accompanied by a coarsening of the substrate and elimination of 
the stabilizing seagrass and algal communities. Carbonate banks are dynamic features 
that are highly responsive to sea level changes, storm processes and sediment supply. 


369 



1994 0 

Zieman, J. C. (1994) A conceptual model of seagrass dieoff in Florida Bay. Abs., ASLO/PSA 

Joint Mtg., Miami, FL. a-85. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Since the 
summer of 1987, Florida Bay has experienced a major dieoff of seagrasses totaling 
tens of thousands of hectares, nearly all Thalassia testudinum. Dieoff has been 
accompanied by eutrophic epiphyte and algal growth, apparently due to the release of 
nutrients from the nutrient rich barren sediments and the thousands of metric tons of 
decreasing seagrass. Distal causes of dieoff include long-term curtailment of water 
flow into the Everglades and resulting change in communities, coupled with an abnormal 
(>3 times normal) time between perturbations by tropical storms. Potential proximal 
triggers include: (1) abnormally high temperatures in summer and fall of 1987, (2) 
extreme salinities, and (3) possibly disease. Seagrass photosynthetic capacity is 
compromised by eutrophic algal growth mud suspended sediments from the unstabilized 
sediments. Plant death would then result from an inability of the plants to meet 
respiratory requirements, or hypoxic stress. As the dieoff process continues, the 
additional dead seagrass leaves and barren sediments maintain a positive growth loop 
which has not yet reached equilibrium, but the conditions sustaining the dieoff are not 
the conditions that initiated it. A model of this process is presented. 


1994 0 

Zieman, J. C., R. Davis, J. W. Fourqurean, and M. B. Robblee (1994) The role of climate in 

the Florida Bay seagrass dieoff. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3): 1088. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Since the fall 
of 1987, Florida Bay has experienced a major die-off of seagrasses and benthic 
macrophytes totaling tens of thousands of hectares. After several years, dieoff of 
Thalassia continued at a reduced rate, while colonization and growth of the colonizer 
Halodule became widespread. Anomalies in the recent climate record may have played a 
significant part in the dieoff initiation. Retrospective analysis of earlier data coupled 
with current studies show a large increase in seagrass biomass prior to the dieoff and a 
decline in turnover rate or specific plant productivity during the dieoff. External stress 
in the form of hypersaline conditions (maximum salinities >70, max. yearly station 
averages >50 %o), which are partly anthropogenically derived, were prevalent during 
much of the dieoff. Climatic stresses are: (1) excessively warm waters in the late 
summer and fall of 1986 - 1988, and 1990; and (2) a reduction of historic tropical 
storm frequency and intensity. Increased temperatures and decreased day length in the 
fall negatively impact seagrass P/R. Historical and anecdotal evidence suggests a 
continuing shift over the past to decades from a mixed habitat to an increasingly 
monospecific Thalassia community. While recolonization processes are establishing a 
more diverse mixture of habitats with the potential of enhanced secondary 
productivity, in some areas, in 1992, major dieoff expansion has occurred in western 
Florida Bay. 


370 



Related papers/reports 


1905 - 1985 

Myers, R. L. (1986) Florida's freezes: an analog of short-duration nuclear winter events in 
the Tropics. Fla. Sci.. 49(2): 105-15. 

Recently developed scenarios of nuclear winter effects originating from a nuclear 
exchange in the north temperate zone point to localized periodic freezes reaching as far 
south as the Tropic of Capricorn. The effects of freezes on Florida's agriculture and 
natural ecosystems are assessed as analogs of what might occur at lower latitudes 
should freezing temperatures from a nuclear winter reach into the tropics. Vegetation 
damage, population fluctuations, restricted distributions, fishkills, and crop losses are 
recurrent features associated with freezes in Florida. However, Florida's freezes can 
only serve as a partial model because of bioclimatic dissimilarities between tropical 
regions and the Florida peninsula. Florida, itself, would suffer severe environmental 
consequences during a nuclear winter, yet certain features of it's environment may 
permit a relatively rapid recovery. Severe freezes occurred in 1905, 1906, 1909, 
1917, 1928, 1934, 1940, 1947, 1957-58, 1962, 1970, 1971, 1977, 1981, 1982, 
1983, and 1985. 

1913 - 1986 

Hanson, K., and G. A. Maul (1993) Analysis of temperature, precipitation, and sea-level 
variability with concentration on Key West, Florida, for evidence of trace-gas-induced 
climate change. Climatic Change in the Intra-Americas Sea . G. A. Maul (ed.). Edward 
Arnold, New York. 193-213. 

Meteorological and sea-level data for Key West, Florida, have been examined for 
evidence of changes during recent decades that may be attributed to increasing trace 
gases in the atmosphere. The 136-yr air-temperature record (1851 - 1986) gives the 
evidence that a slight warming has occurred, but there has been no appreciable change 
since 1950. However, there are questions of the reality of the warming because of the 
varied temperature-observing conditions over the period of record. The 101 -yr 
precipitation record (1886 - 1986) gives evidence that no significant change in 
precipitation has occurred during the period of record. In addition to Key West weather, 
sea-level records from all 62 stations on file with the Permanent Service for Mean Sea 
Level that cover the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, the Bahamas, and Bermuda have 
been examined for linear trends. Average (±1 standard deviation), sea-level rise is 0.4 
cm yr' 1 (± 0.6 cm yr' 1 ) for all stations (mean record length 20 yrs), and 0.3 cm yr" 1 
(± 0.4 cm yr' 1 ) for those stations with records of >10 yrs in length. A regional 
maximum of ^.+ 1.0 cm yr' 1 is centered in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico, an area of 
subsidence. Regional minimums (~ -0.3 cm yr' 1 ) occur in the southwestern Gulf and in 
the Lesser Antilles, where there is diastrophism. Average sea-level rise at Key West, 
a site of tectonic stability, is 0.22 cm yr' 1 (± 0.01 cm yr' 1 ) for the period 1913 - 
1986. Key West sea level seems unrelated to local air temperature, barometric 
pressure, precipitation and records of coral growth, but is significantly lower than 
normal during the year preceding a strong El Nino - Southern Oscillation event, and 
higher than normal during the event itself. There is no evidence for accelerated sea- 
level rise at this site. 


371 




1931 - 1946, 1974 - 1989 

Ogden, J. C. (1994) A comparison of wading bird nesting colony dynamics (1931 - 1946 
and 1974 - 1989) as an indication of ecosystem conditions in the southern Everglades. In: 
Everglades: The Ecosystem and Its Restoration . S. M. Davis and J. C. Ogden (eds.) St. Lucie 
Press, Delray Beach, FL. 

Patterns of nesting for five species of colonial wading birds (Ciconiiformes) in the 
central and southern Everglades in Florida were compared between two separate 
periods: an early drainage period (1931 - 46) and a late drainage period (1974 - 89). 
Parameters examined during the two periods were: (1) numbers of birds nesting in 
each colony, (2) locations of colonies, (3) timing and nesting, and (4) colony success. 
The five species analyzed were: great egret ( Casmerodius albus), tricolored heron 
(Egretta tricolor), snowy egret ( Egretta thula), white ibis ( Eudocimus albus), and wood 
stork ( Mycteria americana). These analyses were conducted to show changes in 
patterns of nesting between periods and to examine how theses changes may have been 
caused by broader scale changes in hydrological patterns. A more complete, recent 
colony database (1953 - 89) for wood storks was also examined to supplement these 
analyses. The total number of nesting wading birds declined from a peak of 180,000 - 
245,000 birds (1933 - 34) in the early period to a peak of 50,000 birds (1976) in the 
recent period. For all species, except the wood stork, the locations of the largest 
colonies changed between periods from a headwaters subregion located at the lower end 
of the Shark River Slough to a central Everglades subregion located north of Everglades 
National Park. Timing of nesting remained largely unchanged between periods, except 
for the wood stork, which shifted the average time of colony initiation from early 
December to late January. The best colony success data were for storks, which showed 
a change from 7 successful nesting years out of 9 years from 1953 to 1961 to 6 
successful years out of 28 from 1962 to 1989. Reductions in the number of nesting 
birds and changes in the location of major colonies appear to correlate with the 
reduction in the total area of wetland foraging habitat, an increased frequency of 
extensive dry outs in the lower Shark River Slough marshes, and the relocation of the 
longer hydroperiod marshes into the Water Conservation Area impoundments. Changes 
in timing of nesting by wood storks and the reduction in stork reproductive effort and 
colony success rate appear to correlate with a loss in food resources in the early dry 
season foraging habitats, located in the higher elevation freshwater marshes that flank 
the major sloughs and in the extensive mainland estuaries. Restoration of more natural 
patterns of colonial wading bird nesting will require substantial increases in volumes of 
water flowing into the southern Everglades, re-establishment of longer hydroperiods in 
the higher elevation marshes, increased flows into the mainland estuaries, and re¬ 
establishment of nearly permanent flooding in the deeper central sloughs. 

1913 - 1986 

Maul, G. A., and D. M. Martin (1993) Sea level rise at Key West, Florida, 1846-1992: 
America's longest instrument record? Geophvs. Res. Lett. . 20(18): 1955-8. 

The continuous series of sea level at Key West, Florida commenced in 1913, but we 
have discovered sporadic measurements that date back to 1846. From records at the 
US Army Corps of Engineers and the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, the sea level 
series has been connected to a Summary (common) Datum. Thus, a gappy record of 
monthly and annual mean heights (H[t]), perhaps the United States longest series over 
San Francisco (ca. 1854) or New York (ca. 1856), can be tested to ascertain if the rise 
in relative sea level at this site is stationary. Applying first and second order least 
squares and two-phase regression analyses, we find that dH/dt is 0.19 ± 0.01 cm yr' 1 , 
and that d 2 H/dt 2 = [9.6 ± 8.6] 10' 3 cm yr' 2 ; the two-phase regression shows H[t] 
rising 0.15 ± 0.03 cm yr' 1 before ca. 1925 and 0.23 ± 0.01 cm yr* 1 afterwards. 
Neither the second-order regression coefficient nor d 2 H/dt 2 nor the two-phase 


372 




calculation are significant above the 75% confidence level, but all three are weakly 
consistent with accelerated rise. For the epoch 1951-1987, Key West sea level, 
corrected for post-glacial rebound, is best explained by concurrent measurements of 0 
- 1,000 db dynamic height anomaly change. 

1973 - 1976 

Burpee, R. W. (1979) Peninsula-scale convergence in the south Florida sea breeze. Mon. 

Wea. Rev.. 107:852-60. 

Computations of peninsula-scale convergence in southern Florida reveal that daily- 
averaged surface convergence on sea-breeze days with relatively little rainfall is 
larger than on days with widespread rain. This negative correlation between surface 
convergence and area-averaged rainfall occurs as a result of significantly less surface 
convergence in the late afternoon and early evening on those days with considerable 
rainfall. The decrease in sea-breeze convergence during the late afternoon of the days 
with extensive rainfall is apparently a consequence of the downdrafts and 
thunderstorm-generated cirrus cloud cover produced by the deep convection that forms 
in the sea-breeze convergence zones. Before the typical mid afternoon maximum of 
deep convection on sea-breeze days, there is no significant difference between the 
surface convergence averaged for days with widespread rain and for days with little 
rain. Important differences are observed, however, in the middle troposphere, where 
the sea-breeze days with widespread rain are more moist and have cooler 
temperatures than the days with little or no rain. The observations suggest that both 
the magnitude and timing of the convective response to the sea-breeze forcing during 
the afternoon are very sensitive to the moisture amount and stability in the mid 
troposphere. This report is based on data from the Key West, Miami and Tampa weather 
stations recorded from 1973 - 1976. 

1973 - 1976 

Burpee, R. W., and L. Lahiff (1984) Area-average rainfall variations on sea-breeze days in 

south Florida. Mon. Wea. Re v.. 112:520-34. 

Summer convective regimes over south Florida can be broadly classified as either sea 
breeze or disturbed. Sea-breeze circulations develop on one or both coasts on most 
days with relatively little high cloudiness during the morning hours. The sea breeze 
strongly modulates the development of deep convection and produces sharp mid 
afternoon peak in rainfall. Disturbed days, which are characterized by extensive high 
cloudiness near sunrise, also have a rainfall maximum during the afternoon. 
Relationships between rainfall and thermodynamic and kinematic variables on disturbed 
and sea-breeze days have some significant differences. Comparison rainfall records 
from the south Florida peninsula with observations from the Florida Keys, where sea- 
breeze circulations are relatively weak, indicates that the sea breeze accounts for 
about 35-40% of south Florida peninsula rainfall during the summer months. Area- 
averaged rainfall and the time variations of peninsula-scale surface divergence and 
hourly rainfall sea-breeze days are affected by the value of mid tropospheric humidity, 
and lower tropospheric lapse rate, wind speed, and wind direction measured at 0700 
EST. Days with relatively high humidity and steep lapse rates typically have deep 
convective activity that tends to develop sooner and reach its peak earlier than normal. 
Also, on such days surface convergence is significantly less than average in the late 
afternoon and early evening. Physical and dynamical processes that might account for 
the smaller values of surface convergence in the late afternoon are discussed. The 
magnitude of the low-level wind speed (1000 - 800 mb) observed at 0700 EST does not 
greatly affect the timing of peninsula-scale rainfall. Sea-breeze days with weaker than 
average low-level wind speeds have relatively large values of surface convergence and 
more rainfall during the afternoon. There are two sea-breeze regimes for low-level 


373 





wind speeds > 5 m s' 1 . When the low-level wind blows parallel to the peninsula, sea- 
breeze circulation is strong and area rainfall is greater than average. When the wind 
blows across the peninsula, the sea breeze is absent or weak and rainfall is below 
average. This report is based on data from the Key West, Miami, Tampa and Cape 
Kennedy weather stations recorded from 1973 - 1976 and satellite data for the same 
time period. 


1974 0 

Heald, E. J., W. E. Odum, and D. C. Tabb (1974) Mangroves in the estuarine food chain. 

Environments of South Florida: Present and Past. Memoir 2. P. J. Gleason (ed.). Miami 

Geological Society, Coral Gables, FL. 182-91. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Discussion centers around the 
seemingly different roles of red and black mangroves in estuarine food chains. Red 
mangroves, the majority of which are intertidal or riverine, produce large quantities 
of detrital material upon which is based a good chain from microorganisms to top 

carnivores of sport and commercial value. Many black mangrove communities, by 

virtue of their location, are probably not significant exporters of detritus to adjacent 
estuaries. Their importance lies apparently in the mosquito killifish food chain 

culminating in the same top level carnivores as the red mangrove-based system. 


1987 0 

Moffler, M. D., and M. J. Durako (1987) Reproductive biology of the tropical-subtropical 

seagrasses of the southeastern United States. Fla. Mar. Res. Publ. . 42:77-88 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Studies of reproductive biology in 
seagrasses of the southeastern United States have addressed descriptive morphology 
and anatomy, reproductive physiology, seed occurrence, and germination. Halodule 
wrightii Aschers., Halophila engelmannii Aschers., Syringodium filiforme Kutz., and 
Thalassia testudinum Banks ex Konig are dioecious; Halophila decipiens Ostenfeld and 
Ruppia maritima L. are monoecious. In Halop johnsonii Eiseman, only female flowers are 
known. With the exception of R. maritima, which has hydroanemophilous pollination, 
these species have hydrophilous pollination. Recent reproductive-ecology studies 
suggest that reproductive patterns are due to phenoplastic responses and/or genetic 
adaptation physico-chemical environmental conditions. Laboratory and field 
investigations indicate that reproductive periodicity is temperature controlled, but 
proposed mechanisms are disputed. Water temperature appears to influence floral 
development and may be important in determining subsequent flower densities and 
fruit/seed production. Flowering under continuous light in vitro, suggests that 
photoperiod plays a limited role in floral induction. Flower expression and anthesis, 
however, may be influenced by photoperiod. Floral morphoontogenetic studies of T. 
testudinum field populations demonstrated the presence of early-stage inflorescence 
during short- and long-day photoperiods, further suggesting day neutrality in this 
species. High initial reproductive efforts, annual variation in male sex expression, 
secondary sex characters, and possible interaction of ramet age with sex expression 
have also been detected. 


1993 0 

Rood, B. E., J. Delfino, J. Gottgens, C. Earle, T. Crisman, L. Garcia, and N. Ushakoff (1993) 
Increased mercury accumulation rates in Florida Everglades sediment. American Chemical 
Soc., Natl. Mtg., Denver, CO. Abs., ACS, 205(1-2):ENVR32. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY, DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] This study of 
Hg in Everglades sediment was initiated after elevated fish Hg levels were identified 
from this region. The goal of this study was to determine: (1) baseline historic Hg 
concentrations, (2) chronological changes in Hg accumulation rates, and (3) spatial 


374 




distribution of Hg. Rates of accumulation have increased as much as ten-fold from pre- 
1990 conditions. Presently, no spatial distribution pattern is apparent. The Everglades 
are distinctly different in structure, function, geographical, and climatologic conditions 
from other described systems, yet the sediment profiles suggest that Hg accumulation 
in the Everglades is similar to such patterns reported elsewhere. 


1994 0 

Bancroft, G. T., A. M. Strong, R. J. Sawicki, W. Hoffman, and S. D. Jewell (1994) 
Relationships among wading bird foraging patterns, colony locations, and hydrology in the 
Everglades. In: Everglades: The Ecosystem and Its Restoration . S. M. Davis and J. C. Ogden 
(eds.) St. Lucie Press, Delray Beach, FL. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Restoration of wading bird 
breeding populations in the Everglades requires a better understanding of the 
relationships among wading bird foraging patterns, colony locations, and hydrology. To 
address this need, general foraging distribution data from systematic aerial surveys, 
specific foraging distribution data obtained from following flights, habitat data from the 
USGS orthophotomaps, hydrological data from gauges and aerial surveys, and coloney 
location, size, and sucess data from three recent studies were analyzed. Nesting great 
egrets (Casmerodius albus) and white ibises (Eudocimus albus) typically foraged within 
9 and 10 km, respectively, of their colonies. Historically, these species bred in large, 
mixed-species colonies in the mangrove zone of Everglades National Park, whereas 
currently they breed in much smaller colonies in the water Conservation Areas. The 
persisting historic colonies in the mangrove zone are surrounded by a diverse mosaic of 
habitats and generally have a smaller percentage of freshwater habitats. In the Water 
Conservation Areas, great egret and white ibis foraging distributions varied within and 
among years and were generally correlated with differences in water depth and 
distribution. Comparison of colony location and size with overall foraging distributions 
during the months overlapping breeding indicated that colony location for these two 
species was only a marginal predictor of the location of food resources at the time 
when they were feeding young. Examination of the formation, growth and decline of the 
L-67 colony in the Water Conservation Areas during the drought year 1989 showed 
that, initially, the nesting birds were feeding close to the colony. As the area dried out, 
the overall foraging distribution shifted well south of the colony. Nesting birds 
gradually had to fly farther to find foraging sites, and the colony experienced high 
levels of nest abandonment. It can be concluded that wading birds initiate nesting near 
foraging aggregations, feeding on large and concentrated prey bases near suitable 
nesting sites, at physiologically appropriate times of year. These simple cues, 
however, may no longer be adequate indicators of foraging sites that will provide food 
for the 3 - 4 months needed to complete nesting. In addition to influencing the patterns 
and timing of water flows, it is likely that water management has aggravated the 
effects of dry season rainfall by increasing the severity and duration of reversals, 
creating pulsed regulatory releases and reducing water levels so that a given rainfall 
event has a greater diluting effect. The compartmentalization of the Everglades may 
have decreased the ability of forage fish to migrate through the system, especially into 
the deeper sloughs during the dry season, thus decreasing the productivity of these 
areas for nesting wading birds. The extent of wetlands should be maximized by 
restoring degraded marshes wherever possible. The natural connectivity in the system 
should be increased by reducing compartmentalization and the critical features of 
natural hydrology should be replicated, especially in the northern ends of the Water 
Conservation Areas and Shark River Slough. Additionally, the hydrology and 
productivity of the lower Shark River Slough wetlands and the associated estuaries 
should be analyzed more thoroughly, and peak flows out of Water Conservation Area 3A 
and Shark River Slough should be increased to improve habitats in the areas from Nine 


375 



Mile and Paurotis ponds to Watson, North, and Roberts rivers and into the headwaters 
of Gum, Dixons, Lostmans, and East Slough. 


1994 0 

Frederick, P. C., and G. V. N. Powell (1994) Nutrient transport by wading birds in the 

Everglades. In: Everglades: The Ecosystem and Its Restoration . S. M. Davis and J. C. Ogden 

(eds.) St. Lucie Press, Delray Beach, FL. 

[DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] The effect of nutrient 
accumulation resulting from deposition of feces in colonies of colonially breeding and 
roosting wading birds is estimated in this chapter for breeding and non breeding 
ciconiiform birds in the Everglades ecosystem, by modeling energy consumption and 
feces deposition rates and by using existing measurements of size, energy, and nutrient 
content of prey items from the Everglades. Current populations of breeding and non 
breeding birds are estimated to consume 4.9 fewer tons of prey (dry mass) per year 
than the much larger populations of the 1930s and 1940s, equivalent to an estimated 
14.6 million fewer prey items per year. This difference translates into 455 fewer tons 
of feces deposited in roosts and colonies per year, roughly equivalent to 59 fewer tons 
nitrogen and 5.6 fewer tons phosphorus. Non-breeding birds are estimated to account 
for only 1.5% of the difference in nutrient flux attributable to birds between the two 
periods, indicating that the differences are due to reductions in energyintensive 
breeding attempts. Although even the largest historical populations are estimated to 
have redistributed only a very small fraction of the total annual deposition of 
phosphorus and other nutrients in the marsh, loading rates at colonies can be extremely 
high. Loading rates at historical colony sites could have been as high as 120 g P nrr 2 
yr' 1 (approximately 3000 times the estimated historic atmospheric deposition rate), 
while current colonies are estimated to have rates of only 0.9 g P nrr 2 yr 1 (more than 
20 times the historic atmospheric deposition rate). Evidence from the Everglades and 
other ecosystems suggests that high nutrient concentrations in the vicinity of colonies 
has a strong effect on the productivity and species composition of aquatic fauna and 
flora. This may have strong feedback effects for survival of young wading birds, which 
characteristically develop foraging skills at or near colony sites. Recent relocation of 
large colonies from the estuarine zone to the freshwater Everglades implies that 
nutrient input to the estuary has decreased significantly. Nutrient-rich colonies 
probably serve as islands of refugia for nutrient-tolerant species in the oligotrophic 
Everglades and may serve to significantly affect the variability in biodiversity of the 
marsh. Sources of error tend to be in the direction of overestimation of nutrients 
transported, and in this regard, the amount of food required by nestlings is a central 
and poorly understood variable. 


1994 0 

Guentzel, J. L., W. M. Landing, and C. D. Pollman (1994) Atmospheric deposition of mercury 
in Florida: the FAMS Project (1992-1993). Abs., ASLO/PSA Joint Mtg., Miami, FL. a-31. 
[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] A five year 
study focusing on the atmospheric deposition of Hg and other trace elements in central 
and south Florida has been initiated. One of the primary objectives of the study is to 
determine the total pluvial flux of Hg and its partitioning into wet and dry components. 
Total metal deposition is collected at monthly intervals using continuous bulk deposition 
samplers. Wet deposition is collected by hand during individual storm events and 
monthly using a modified version of the automated Aerochem Metrics wet\dry 
deposition sampler. Preliminary calculations suggest that the atmospheric flux of Hg is 
seasonal, with the highest fluxes occurring during the summer months. There does 
appear to be a slight geographic trend, with the depositional fluxes being lowest in 
central Florida and increasing towards the south. Annual volume weighted fluxes for the 


376 



five stations are, central Florida; Lake Barco 13 pg Hg nr 2 yr 1 , South Florida; Ft. 
Myers 19 pg Hg nrv 2 yr 1 , Fakahatchee Strand 20 pg Hg nrr 2 yr 1 , Tamiami Trail 21 pg 
Hg m* 2 yr 1 , and Everglades Research Station 25 pg Hg nr 2 yr -1 . 


1994 0 

Hanisak, M. D., and S. L. Miller (1994) Spatial and temporal variability in the elemental 
composition of benthic macroalgae in the Florida Keys. Abs., ASLO/PSA Joint Mtg., Miami, 
FL. a-33. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Macroalgae are 
sensitive integrators of nutrients in coastal ecosystems. The nutrient status of 
representative field-collected macroalgae is being assessed at a series of stations in 
the Florida Keys. Preliminary analyses indicate considerable differences among the 
nitrogen contents of the dominant algal taxa. Nitrogen levels are higher for algae 
growing in sediment [e.g., Penicillus (mean = 2.8% N) and Avrainvillea (mean = 3.5% 
N)] than algae that do not [e.g., Laurencia (mean = 1.2% N) and Dictyota (mean = I .4% 
N)]. We hypothesize that, just as seagrasses do, these macroalgae are deriving 
nutrients from sediments rather than from, or in addition to, the water column. 
Temporal (i.e., seasonal) and spatial variability (nearshore vs. offshore, upper vs. 
middle Keys) in the N and P tissue contents also occur. This study will document 
ecosystem-level inputs of nutrients throughout the Keys, will determine if 
anthropogenic sources of nutrients cause pollution 'hot spots*, and will help support or 
refute recent claims that nutrient eutrophication significantly impacts the Florida Reef 
T ract. 


1994 0 

Kotra, R. K., L. P. Gough, W. H. Orem, and E. C. Spiker (1994) Geochemical studies of South 

Florida wetlands. Abs., ASLO/PSA Joint Mtg., Miami, FL. a-41. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] South Florida is 
an environmentally sensitive region of rapid population growth. Agricultural activities, 
residential development, and historical water management practices all affect drainage 
patterns and are potential sources and agents of stress on wetland ecosystems. Our 
geochemical studies are in support of south Florida earth science projects, including: 
geologic mapping, water quality assessments, and environmental investigations. In 
cooperation with the National Park Service, samples of water, sediment, soil, peat, and 
biota are being characterized to understand the biogeochemical cycling and flux of 
several important elements (e.g. C, N, S, P, Hg, and As) which may be impacting south 
Florida wetland ecosystems. We are focusing our efforts on organic rich materials, 
particularly peat. Preliminary results show related levels of Hg (up to 240 ng g* 1 ) in 
peat cores from a variety of wetland ecosystems and from recent sediment samples 
from several locations in south Florida. Sawgrass from wetlands and bromeliads from 
cypress swamps did not contain unusually high levels of mercury. Biogeochemical 
factors (such as peat biodegradation and oxidation) which may be influencing the 
distribution and cycling of Hg and other elements are being investigated. 


1994 0 

Rood, B. E., J. F. Gottgens, and J. J. Delfino (1994) Spatial and temporal distribution of 
mercury and other trace metals in Florida Everglades flooded soils. Abs., ASLO/PSA Joint 
Mtg., Miami, FL. a-63. 

[ABSTRACT ONLY. DATE OF SAMPLING UNKNOWN OR NOT APPLICABLE.] Elevated Hg 
concentrations were identified previously in freshwater fish in the Florida Everglades. 
The goals of this research were to determine the spatial distribution of mercury in 
Everglades soils and to identify temporal changes of Hg accumulation since the turn of 
the century. Soil cores or grab samples were retrieved from sixty locations in the 
Everglades. Seventeen cores were dated after radionuclide assay for 210 Pb and 137 Cs. 


377 


The average Hg concentration in surface sediment (0 - 4 cm) of 121 ng g' 1 was 2.5 
times higher than corresponding deep sediment (11-17 cm) concentrations. Post-1985 
Hg accumulation rates averaged 53 ^ig m' 2 y* 1 corresponding to a 6.4 (1.6 - 19.1, n = 
18) times rate increase since the year 1900. Mercury accumulation rates increase 
starting about 1940, due perhaps to mid-century alteration of the hydrologic structure 
of the Everglades, and to increased agricultural and urban development to the north and 
east. Further, the findings are similar to trends reported for lakes in Sweden, 
Minnesota, and Wisconsin, perhaps, indicating a global process that leads to similar 
accumulation rates over widely varying geographic regions. 


378 


APPENDIX II 


Historical events and studies 

[Chronological sequence from 1910 is by date of sampling (if known) or in the case of 
calculated or inferred parameters by the earliest date determined. Geological studies describing 
formation of geological features in the area are listed by publication date. Publication date of a 
paper or report are noted with a diamond next to the year of publication. The study dates are 
shown in a common time line in Appendix III.] 


11.1. Global atmospheric, geological and astronomical phenomena 

10-93 Hurricanes 

10-93 Solar sunspot cycle 

10-93 El Nino events 

10-93 Volcanoes 

11.2. General papers 

54 0 
73 0 

72 0 
82 0 
84 0 
20 0 
26 0 
70-74 
43 0 
78-80 

89 0 
81 0 

83 0 
59 0 

73 0 
77-81 
78 0 
57-62 
82 0 
94 0 

11.3. Climatology 

10-68 Summary of climatological records (Thomas, 1970) 

74 0 Summary of climatological records (Thomas, 1974) 

92 0 Climate change and tidal flat ecosystems (Cubit, 1992) 

94 0 Climate change and tidal flat ecosystems (Cubit, 1994) 

52-79 Rainfall estimates in Shark Slough (Lew et al., 1982) 

10-89 Florida precipitation and El Nino (Hanson and Maul, 1991) 

69, 71 Beaches and ground water of Cape Sable during extreme drought (Russel, 

1971) 

77 Cold water stress (Roberts et al., 1982) 


Gulf of Mexico (Galtstoff, 1954) 

Eastern Gulf of Mexico (Jones et al., 1973) 

Gulf of Mexico estuarine inventory (McNulty et al., 1972) 

Gulf coast ecological inventory (Beccasio et al., 1982) 

Florida estuaries (VanArman, 1984) 

Florida ecology (Simpson, 1920) 

South Florida ecology (Dimock, 1926) 

Environment of South Florida (McPherson et al., 1976) 

Natural features and vegetation of southern Florida (Davis, 1943) 
Vegetation of the southern coastal region of Everglades (Olmstead et al., 
1981) 

Ecosystem research and resource management (Livingston, 1989) 

Role of underwater parks and sanctuaries in the management of coastal 
resources (Davis, 1981) 

Everglades National Park (Hendrix and Morehead, 1983) 

Research in marine areas of Everglades National Park (Wallis, 1959) 

Effects of natural forces on the Everglades (Craighead, 1973) 

Calorific relationship of Everglades animals (Kushlan et al., 1986) 

Energy analysis of Everglades National Park (DeBellevue et al., 1978) 
Ecology of Florida Bay (Tabb et al., 1962) 

Ecology of Florida Bay (Schomer and Drew, 1982) 

Florida Bay economy and changing environmental conditions (Gorte, 1994) 


379 


77 

76-77, 

81 

81 0 
74 0 
1 9-89 
60 
60 
60 

60, 65 
92 


79-81 


Cold water stress (Roberts et al., 1983) 

Cold air outbreaks effects on coral reefs (Walker, 1982) 

Cold-air outbreak event (Walker et al., 1982) 

Cold water kill (Walker, 1981) 

Hurricanes in South Florida (Gentry, 1974) 

Hurricanes in Florida Bay (Meeder and Meeder, 1989) 

Hurricane Donna (Craighead and Gilbert, 1962) 

Hurricane Donna (Tabb and Jones, 1962) 

Effects of Hurricane Donna (Ball et al., 1967) 

Hurricanes Betsy and Donna (Perkins and Enos, 1968) 

Hurricane Andrew's effect on marine resources (Tilmant et al., 1994) 


[Published works on Hurricane Andrew listed under seagrasses, mangroves, crustaceans.] 


11.4. Geology 


11.4.1. Field guides 

57-74 Okefenokee Swamp and Everglades mangrove swamp (Spackman et al., 

1974) 

62-66 Field guidebook of Everglades (Kolipinski et al., 1967) 

64 0 Field guide to coal formation environments (Spackman et al., 1964) 

72 0 Field guide to carbonate sediments (Ginsburg, 1972) 

75 0 Field guide (Multer, 1975) 


11.4.2. General/descriptive 


29 0 Geology of Florida (Cooke and Mossom, 1929) 

44 0 Late Cenozoic geology (Parker and Cooke, 1944) 

67 0 Geological history (Scholl and Craighead, 1967) 

73 0 Geological inventory of Cumberland Island (University of Georgia, 1973) 

74 0 Geology (Hoffmeister, 1974) 

88 0 Geological history (Merriam, 1988) 

89 0 Geology overview (Merriam, 1989) 

94 0 South Florida geological environment (Ginsburg and Shinn, 1994) 

77 0 Depositional framework of Pleistocene rocks (Perkins, 1977) 

67 0 Miami limestone (Hoffmeister et al., 1967) 

80 0 Deposition history of Miami limestone formation (Mitchell-Tapping, 1980) 

2 8-94 Evolution of the southwest Florida coastline (Frederick et al., 1994) 

91 0 Bedrock topography (Lidz and Shinn, 1991) 

84 Recent carbonate sedimentation and major subenvironments (Sengupta, 
1 985) 

85 0 Definition of major sub-environments (Sengupta and Merriam, 1985) 

89 0 Definition and implications of the subenvironments (Merriam et al., 1989) 

11.4.3. Evolution/development/stratigraphy 


84 0 
89 0 
89 0 
89 0 
94 0 
85, 87 
89 0 


Holocene evolution of mangrove islands (Quinn, 1984) 

Holocene bank development (Mukherki, 1989) 

Holocene evolution of coast and islands (Cottrell, 1989) 

Holocene evolution of keys (Cottrell, 1989) 

Holocene environmental history of carbonate banks (Wanless et al., 1994) 
Stratigraphy of Pleistocene bedrock (Fuhr, 1988) 

Pleistocene bedrock geology (Merriam et al., 1989) 


380 


74 0 
90 0 
88 0 
94 0 
68 0 
74 0 
76 

79 0 

80 0 
81 0 
85, 88 

89 0 

89 0 
76 
76 0 

90 0 


Neogene stratigraphy (DuBar, 1974) 

Patch reefs of the Pleistocene (Textoris, 1990) 

Evolution of Florida Bay islands (Quinn and Merriam, 1988) 

Florida Keys reefs (Shinn et a/.. 1994) 

Subaerial laminated crusts (Multer and Hoffmeister, 1968) 

Mangrove sedimentation (Wanless, 1974) 

Stratigraphy of Cluett Key (Videlock, 1983) 

Evolution of Bay from island stratigraphy (Enos and Perkins, 1979) 

Lagoon stratigraphy (Enos, 1980) 

Mangrove swamp stratigraphy (Woodroffe, 1981) 

Stratigraphy and depositional history of the Pleistocene bedrock (Textoris, 
1988) 

Recent sediments and key stratigraphy (Merriam and Quinn, 1989) 

Storm generated stratification during the Holocene (Galli, 1989) 

Ground water on small carbonate islands (Halley and Steinen, 1979) 

Coastal change at Cape Sable (Smith and Roberts, 1976) 

Computer modeling of the internal architecture of carbonate platforms 
(Bosence and Waltham, 1990) 


11.4.4. Sea level rise 


12-88 Sea level and stability of wetlands (Wanless et al., 1994) 

67 0 Submergence curve (Scholl and Stuiver, 1967) 

67 0 Submergence curve, discussion (Smith and Coleman, 1967) 

67 0 Submergence curve, a reply (Scholl and Stuiver, 1967) 

69 0 Submergence curve (Scholl et al., 1969) 

87 0 Computer simulation of sea level changes (Pike, 1987) 

11.4.5. Sediments/Sedimentation 


10 0 Sediments (Vaughn, 1910) 

53-54 Laminated algal sediments (Ginsburg et al., 1954) 

57 0 Early diagenesis of carbonate sediments (Ginsburg, 1957) 

64 0 Recent sedimentary records in mangrove swamps (Part 1) (Scholl, 1964) 

64 0 Recent sedimentary records in mangrove swamps (Part 2) (Scholl, 1964) 

71-73 Sediments (Grady, 1978) 

72 0 Coastal sedimentation (Kerr, 1972) 

73 0 Holocene dolomitization of supratidal sediments, Sugarloaf Key (Carballo, 

1973) 

74 0 Holocene sediments (Gleason et al., 1974) 

77 0 Holocene sedimentation at Cape Sable (Roberts et al., 1977) 

79 0 Physical sedimentation (Wanless, 1979) 

66 0 Recent limestone formation (Scholl, 1966) 

81 0 Sediments in Florida Bay basin (Tyson, 1981) 

82 0 Paleoecological significance of ovoidites (Rich et al., 1982) 

52-54 Grain size and constituents in sediments (Ginsburg, 1956) 

62-63 Sediment size distribution and chemistry (Lynts, 1966) 

82 Processes affecting grain-size and chemical distribution (Sorensen, 1985) 

85 0 Geochemical and grain-size distribution (Sorensen and Merriam, 1985) 

62 0 Carbonate geochemistry and sedimentology (Gleece, 1962) 

84 Water chemical properties and the water/sediment interface (Merriam et 

al., 1985) 

69 0 Silicate minerals (Manker and Griffin, 1969) 

8 5 Carbonate production (Bosence, 1989) 


381 


85-87 

71 0 

59 

76 

67-68 
63 0 
63 0 
91 0 
67 0 
74 0 
59, 62 
82 

80-83 
67 0 
81 0 
82 0 
85 0 
85 0 
61 0 

85 0 
79 0 
88 0 
70 0 
69-71 
62 0 

60 
63 0 
79 0 
85 

63 0 
67 0 
61 0 
62 0 

77 0 
82 0 

72 0 


11.4.7. Sediment 

71 0 
88 0 
62 0 
92 0 

73 0 
88, 90 
77 0 
66 0 
90 0 

79 0 


Surface sublittoral sediment characteristics (Bosence, 1989) 

Insoluble clay minerals (Manker and Griffin, 1971) 

Unconsolidated carbonate sediments (Taft, 1962) 

Acid insoluble sediment residues (Layman, 1977) 

Silicate minerals in a carbonate environments (Manker, 1969) 

Cation influence on recrystallization of carbonates (Taft, 1963) 

Carbonate deposition environments (Gorsline, 1963) 

Diagenesis of carbonate muds (Andrews, 1991) 

Carbonate sediments (Taft, 1967) 

Carbonate sediments (O'Brien et al., 1974) 

Modern carbonate sediments (Taft and Harbaugh, 1964) 

Carbonate sediments of Shell Key (Sorensen, 1985) 

Sediments of Shell Key Basin (Merriam et al., 1987) 

Sediments of Cross Bank (Muller and Muller, 1967) 

Carbonate sediments from Peterson Key Bank (Kick, 1981) 

Carbonate mud banks desposition in Ramshorn Spit (Parks et al., 1982) 
Deposition of a carbonate mud spit Ramshorn Spit (Holliday, 1985) 
Carbonate mud deposition (Holliday and Parks, 1985) 

Mineralogy and early diagensis of carbonate sediments (Stehli and Hower, 
1961) 

Shallow water carbonate facies (Quinn and Merriam, 1985) 

Endolithic infestation of carbonate substrates (May and Perkins, 1979) 
Compaction of carbonate sediments (Knight, 1988) 

Consolidation of carbonate muds (Morelock, 1970) 

Carbonate tidal deltas (Charlton, 1981) 

Mineralogy of carbonate sediments (Taft, 1962) 

Carbonate sediment geochemistry (Fleece, 1962) 

Carbonate geochemistry and sedimentology (Fleece and Goodell, 1963) 
Carbonate sediments and anomalous sulfur content (Davies, 1979) 

Carbonate budgets for carbonate mounds (Bosence, 1989) 

Aragonite crystals (Studer, 1963) 

Dissolution characteristics of carbonate minerals (Berner, 1967) 

Dolomite in carbonate sediments (Taft, 1961) 

Dolomite in carbonate sediments (Taft, 1962) 

Holocene dolomite (Steinen et al., 1977) 

Diffusion coefficients in sediments (Ullman and Aller, 1982) 

Sedimentology and ecology of a Recent carbonate facies mosaic, Cape Sable 
(Gebelein, 1972) 

and interstitial water chemistry/composition 

Analytical study of Caribbean carbonate sediments (Slack and Sites, 1971) 
Dissolved B in sediment (Mackin and Aller, 1988) 

14 C activity in dolimite (Deffeyes and Martin, 1962) 

Sediment and water column nitrogen and phosphorus (Szmant and 
Forrester, 1992) 

Organic carbon in modern carbonate sediments (Roberts et al., 1973) 
Fluorine in carbonate sediment diagenesis (Rude and Aller, 1991) 

Nitrogen diagenesis in nearshore anoxic sediments (Rosenfeld, 1977) 
Magnesium interaction with sediments (Berner, 1966) 

Fluorine and Sr stability during carbonate sediment diagenesis (Rude and 
Aller, 1990) 

Ammonium in anoxic sediments (Rosenfeld, 1979) 


382 


81 0 

Mangrove root intrusion and sulfur enrichment in peats (Raymond and 
Davies, 1981) 

89-90, 92 

80 

89 0 

85-87 

82 0 

89 0 

73-74 

87 0 

82 0 

77 0 

94 0 

79 0 

66 

78 0 

Sediment sulfide and seagrass dieoff (Carlson et a/., 1994) 

Geochemistry of 1 in sediments (Ullman and Aller, 1985) 

Metals and nutrients in sediment (Ryan et al., 1989) 

Trace metals in sediment (Schropp et al., 1990) 

Trace metals in sediment (Manker et al., 1982) 

Trace metals in sediment (Windom et al., 1989) 

Metals in sediments and suspended particulates (Manker, 1975) 
Hydrocarbons in carbonate sediments (Mitterer et al., 1987) 

Dissolved organic matter in sediment (Caughey, 1982) 

Organic carbon interactions in sediment (Mitterer and Carter, 1977) 

Organic matter in a dynamic carbonate sedimentary system (Frewin, 1994) 
Amino acid diagenesis in anoxic sediments (Rosenfeld, 1979) 

Decomposition of organic matter in sediments (Lee, 1969) 

Amino acid composition of organic matter in sediments (Carter and 
Mitterer, 1978) 

85 0 

85 

79 0 

88 0 

94 0 

87-89 

In situ and pyrolytic hydrocarbons in sediments (Dzou, 1985) 

Interstitial water chemistry (Swart et al., 1989) 

Interstitial water chemistry (Rosenfeld, 1979) 

Pore fluid chemistry (Knight, 1988) 

Vertical fluxes resulting from bioirrigation (Tedesco, 1994) 

Nutrients in interstitial water (Fourqurean et al., 1992) 


11.4.8. Mudbanks and basins 


89 0 

76 0 

86 0 

35-89 

83 0 

89 0 

67 0 

78 0 

64 0 

83 0 

Physical characteristics of mudbanks (Powell et al., 1989) 

Depositional history of carbonate mudbank (Hovorka et al., 1976) 

Marine mudbank nucleation (Tagett and Wanless, 1986) 

Evolution of mudbanks (Wanless and Tagett, 1989) 

Marine banks and 'rock reefs’ (Jenkins, 1983) 

Growth of carbonate mudbank (Tagett, 1989) 

Development of the basin - basin honeycomb (Price, 1967) 

Storm generated stratigraphy of carbonate mud banks (Wanless, 1978) 
Cyclic cuspate sand spits and sediment transport (Price, 1964) 

Relationship of geochemical, biological, and sedimentological parameters in 

71 0 

88 

84-86 

basins (Sorensen, 1983) 

Landward movement of carbonate mud (Ginsburg, 1971) 

Water trapping by seagrasses (Powell and Schaffner, 1991) 

Sediment, water level and temperature of grass-covered mudbanks 

90 0 

80 0 

80 0 

81 0 

87 0 

84-86 

58 0 

(Holmquist et al., 1989) 

Biodetrital mud mounds (Bosence, 1990) 

Arsenic Bank development (Aisner, 1980) 

Development of Arsenic Bank (Aisner and Upchurch, 1980) 

Genesis of Arsenic Bank (Aisner and Upchurch, 1981) 

Tidal mudflat model (Mitchell-Tapping, 1987) 

Ecology of shallow water bank habitats (Powell et al., 1987) 

Influence of marine bottom communities on depositional environments of 
sediments (Ginsburg and Lowenstam, 1958) 


11.4.9. Peats 


64-68 

78 0 

Petrology of peats (Cohen and Spackman, 1974) 

Peats (Davies and Spackman, 1978) 


303 


79 0 

Peat petrography and reconstruction of shoreline migrations (Davies, 
1979) 

72 

89 0 

89 0 

64, 66-67 

Peat formation (Davies, 1980) 

Composition and significance of peats (Davies and Cohen, 1989) 
Petrographic/botanical composition of peats (Cohen and Davis, 1989) 
Sedimentary environments and environmental change in the peat-forming 
areas (Smith, 1968) 

80 0 

71 0 

79 0 

Palynology of the peats (Davies and Spackman, 1980) 

Sulfur in peat (Given, 1971) 

Sulfur in peat (Raymond and Davies, 1979) 


11.5. Hydrography and suspended particulates 


61-62 

60-61 

84 

56- 58 

57- 62 

75-88 

92 

57-59 

79-80 

57-89 

89-91 

72 0 

94 0 

89 

Marine geology and oceanography (Gorsline, 1965) 

Hydrography (Goodell and Gorsline, 1961) 

Paleosalinities (Ducommun and Burke, 1987) 

Salinity (McCallum and Stockman, 1961) 

Prediction of estuarine salinities (Tabb, 1967) 

Decade trend in seawater salinity (Halley et a/., 1994) 

Controls on salinity in Florida Bay islands (Kramer et al., 1994) 
Hydrographic data of inshore bays (Tabb et al., 1959) 

Hydrological study of Cross Key (Evink, 1981) 

Quantitative observations of salinity (Robblee et al., 1989) 

Wind and tides (Wang et al., 1994) 

Water circulation (McCallum and Stockman, 1972) 

Circulation (Wang, 1994) 

Affects of wind, rain, and water releases on the water depth and salinity 
(Baratta and Fennema, 1994) 

82 0 

67-68 

Surface transport of particulate matter (Zieman et al., 1982) 

Organic detritus production (Heald, 1969) 


11.6. Water chemistry 


10-77 

92 

86-87 

90 0 

91 0 

10-83 

86-87 

92 0 

Summary of water quality data (Schmidt and Davis, 1978) 

Geochemistry of near-shore ground waters (Machusak and Kump, 1994) 

O and H isotopic water composition (Swart et al., 1989) 

Carbon isotope variations in surface seawater (Walter et al., 1990) 

Marine geochemistry of F (Rude, 1991) 

Lead in water based on corals (Shen and Boyle, 1987) 

Nutrients in water from sewage (Lapointe et al., 1990) 

Nutrient inputs from the watershed and coastal eutrophication in the Florida 
Keys (Lapointe and Clark, 1992) 

89-90 

94 0 

87 

85 

79-81 

84-85 

Nutrients and phytoplankton (Fourqurean et al., 1993) 

Salinity and nutrient cycling (Rudnick, 1994) 
a-Keto acids (Kieber, 1988) 

Glyoxylic and pyruvic acid in seawater (Kieber and Mopper, 1987) 

Humic and fulvic acids in seawater (Brown, 1987) 

Sulfide emissions (Cooper, 1986) 


11.7. Freshwater management and soil subsidence 


10-76 

10-82 

History of water management in South Florida (DeGrove, 1983) 

Historical reconstruction of fresh water flow based on coral banding (Smith 
et al., 1989) 


384 


67 

93 0 

93 0 
74 0 
84 0 

94 0 

73-74 

13-84 
74 0 

11.7. Biology 


Physical, biological, and geological character of the area south of C-111 
Canal (Tabb et al., 1967) 

Water management in Taylor Slough (Van Lent et al., 1993) 

Restoration of Taylor Slough (Van Lent, 1993) 

Predrainage hydrology (Parker, 1984) 

Water management (Tebeau, 1984) 

Changes in freshwater inflow from the Everglades to Florida Bay (Mclvor 
et al., 1994) 

Effects of watershed management on the Shark Slough Whitewater Bay 
estuary (Davis and Hilsenbeck, 1974) 

Soil subsidence in Everglades (Stephens, 1984) 

Soil subsidence in Everglades (Stephens, 1974) 


18-82 Benthic studies in the coastal and estuarine areas of Florida (Mahadevan et 

al., 1984) 

47-57 Existing information on marine ecology of Everglades (Tabb, 1963) 

85 0 Florida aquatic habitat and fishery resources (Seaman, 1985) 

57-60 Flora and fauna species list (Tabb and Manning, 1961) 

64-68 Flora and fauna of Porpoise Lake (Hudson et al., 1970) 

64-68 Key habitat types (Enos, 1989) 

86-87 Benthic communities along salinity gradients (Montague et al., 1989) 

86-87 Benthic vegetation and salinity fluctuations (Montague and Ley, 1993) 

11.7.1. Microorganisms 


93 0 
53 

58-63 
58, 60 
61 0 
61 0 
62-63 
62 

63 

64 0 

65 0 
77 0 
77 0 

77 0 

78 0 

79 0 

82, 85-87 
93 0 
77 0 
74 

79 0 
82 0 

80 0 

74 

75 0 
47 

47-48 


Viral abundance (Paul et al., 1993) 

Foraminifera (Moore, 1957) 

Foraminifera handbook (Bock, 1971) 

Distribution of Recent foraminifera (Lynts, 1962) 

Foraminifera (Bock, 1961) 

Foraminifera (Lynts, 1961) 

Foraminifera in Buttonwood Sound (Lynts, 1971) 

Foraminifera standing crop in Buttonwood Sound (Lynts, 1966) 
Foraminifera in lower Florida Bay (Smith, 1971) 

Recent foraminifera (Smith, 1964) 

Foraminifera (Lynts, 1965) 

Foraminifera (Lidz and Rose, 1989) 

Foraminifera (Steinker, 1977) 

Foraminifera in Buttonwood Sound (Schold, 1977) 

Foraminifera (Crapon de Caprona, 1978) 

Foraminifera (Tisserand Delclos, 1979) 

Larger foraminifera and stable isotopes (Brasier and Green, 1993) 
Foraminifera (Hallock and Peebles, 1993) 

Paleoenvironmental history based on foraminiferida (Vander Kooi, 1977) 
Benthic diatom assemblages (DeFelice and Lynts, 1978) 

Benthic diatom assemblages (DeFelice and Lynts, 1979) 

Diatom communities (DeFelice, 1982) 

Epiphytic diatoms (DeFelice and Lynts, 1980) 

Model studies of epiphytic diatoms (DeFelice, 1975) 

Model studies of epiphytic and epipelic diatoms (DeFelice, 1975) 

Plankton (Davis, 1950) 

Brackish water plankton (Davis and Williams, 1950) 


385 


47 
49 
94 0 

54- 57 

55- 57 
89 0 


11.7.2. Flora 

30 0 
83-85 

86 

86-88 


11.7.2.1. Algae 

76 0 
81 0 

79, 83-84 
64-67 
78-80 
83-84 
72 0 
72 0 
59-61 
94 0 


Plankton (Davis, 1949) 

Plankton (King, 1949) 

Phytoplankton standing crop and composition (Philips and Badylak, 1994) 
Red tide (Finucane and Dragovich, 1959) 

Red tide distribution and occurrence (Finucane, 1964) 

Chemical differences among two fossil ostracoda (Burke and Bischoff, 
1989) 


Vegetation and erosion (Small, 1930) 

Distribution and abundance of benthic vegetation (Zieman and Fourqurean, 
1985) 

Fresh and ocean water utilization by coastal plants (Sternberg and Swart, 
1987) 

Submerged vegetation and salinity gradients (Montague et al., 1989) 


Benthic marine algae (Woelkerling, 1976) 

Macroalgal seasonality in Safophora-dominated communities (Morrison, 
1981) 

Seagrasses and macroalgae (Zieman et al., 1989) 

Ecology of microalgae (Wood and Maynard, 1974) 

Seasonality of macroalga (Morrison, 1984) 

Macroalgae production and nutrients (Lapointe, 1989) 

Calcium oxalate crystals in green algae (Friedman et al., 1972) 

Aragonite in algae (Perkins et al., 1972) 

Production of lime mud by algae (Stockman et al., 1967) 

Pigment and spectral analysis of seagrass and algal blooms (Reese and 
Richardson, 1994) 


11.7.2.2. Seagrass 


82 0 
87 0 

94 0 
87 0 
74-80 
87 0 
89 0 
87-89 
83-87 

94 

83-84 
92 0 
91 0 
83 

91-92 
89 0 


Ecology of the seagrass community (Zieman, 1982) 

Isotopic investigations of food webs in seagrass meadows (Fry et al., 
1987) 

Seagrass communities model (Fong and Harwell, 1994) 

Seagrass biology and distribution (Zieman, 1987) 

Seagrass distribution (Iverson and Bittaker, 1986) 

Seagrass dynamics (Dawes, 1987) 

Nutrient exchange study in seagrass banks (Childers, et al, 1989) 
Phosphorus limitation of primary production (Fourqurean et al., 1992) 
Experimental evidence for nutrient limitation of seagrass growth (Powell et 
al., 1989) 

Seagrass C:N:P ratios as indicators of nutrient availability (Frankovich et 
al., 1994) 

Seagrass enrichment by bird colonies (Powell et al., 1991) 

Resource availability in seagrass communities (Fourqurean, 1992) 

Carbon budget for Thalassia (Fourqurean and Zieman, 1991) 

Calcium carbonate production by Thalassia (Nelsen and Ginsburg, 1986) 
Carbonate production by Thalassia (Frankovich and Zieman, 1994) 

Fungi and slime molds in the die-back of seagrasses (Porter and Muehlstein, 
1989) 


386 


93 0 

94 0 
76 0 
87 0 
40-87 
89 0 

90-91 

87-90 

87-88 

72, 87, 89 

90-92 

89 0 

89-90 

93 0 

92 0 
92 0 

94 0 
92 

94 0 
84 

94 0 


Seagrasses and slime mold (Porter, 1993) 

Seagrasses and slime mold (Durako and Kuss, 1994) 

Seagrass damage from motor boats (Zieman, 1976) 

Human impact on seagrasses (Livingston, 1987) 

Restoration of seagrass meadows (Lewis, 1987) 

Morphoanatomical characteristics and recovery potential of Thalassia 
(Durako, 1989) 

Seagrass dieoffs and plant communities (Thayer at al., 1994) 

Mass mortality of Thalassia (Robblee et al., 1991) 

Seagrass die-off (Zieman et al., 1988) 

Remote monitoring of seagrass die off (Thompson and Robblee, 1989) 
Community response to seagrass die-off (Sheridan, 1994) 

Sediment sulfide and seagrass dieoff (Yarbro et al., 1989) 

Thalassia mortality and sediment sulfide (Carlson et al., 1990) 

Seagrass die-off and interstitial water chemistry (Barber and Carlson, 
1993) 

Thalassia dieoff and climate (Zieman et al., 1992) 

Role of climate in the Florida Bay seagrass dieoff (Zieman et al., 1992) 

Role of climate in the Florida Bay seagrass dieoff (Zieman et al., 1994) 
Effects of Hurricane Andrew on Thalassia and the stratigraphic record 
(Meeder et al., 1994) 

Hypothesis for seagrass die-off (Tomasco and Lapointe, 1994) 

Seagrass transplantation, (Fonseca et al., 1987) 

Model of seagrass dieoff (Zieman, 1994) 


11.7.2.3. Mangroves 


82 0 
89 0 
45-59, 91 

93 0 

36-38 

86 

85 0 

84-85 

88-89 

74 0 
64 0 
72 
92 


Ecology of mangroves (Odum et al., 1982) 

Ecology of mangroves (Snedaker, 1989) 

Patterns of deforestation and fragmentation of mangrove and decidous 
seasonal forests (Strong and Bancroft, 1994) 

Climate change impact on mangroves (Snedaker, 1993) 

Ecology and geologic role of mangroves (Davis, 1940) 

Mangrove seed predation (Smith et al., 1989) 

Red mangrove prop root habitat (Thayer et al., 1985) 

Red mangrove root habitat (Thayer et al., 1987) 

Changes in freshwater flow and use of mangrove prop root habitat by fish 
and invertebrates (Ley and Montague, 1989) 

Mangroves in the estuarine food chain (Heald et al., 1974) 

Mangroves and hurricanes (Craighead, 1964) 

Mercury in mangrove detritus (Lindberg and Harris, 1974) 

Hurricane Andrew, mangroves, and lightning (Smith et al., 1994) 


11.7.3. Fauna 

92 0 Freshwater flow and use of mangrove root habitat (Ley, 1992) 

84-85 Faunal communities and vegetation in selected marine habitats (Thayer et 

al., 1987) 

67-69 Endolithic organisms (Green, 1975) 

73 Macrofauna in Thalassia community (Brook, 1978) 

89 0 Changes in benthic fauna associated with seagrass die-off (Robblee, 1989) 

71-73 DDT, dieldrin and heavy metals in upper food chain (Ogden et al., 1974) 

66-67 Suction sampler for benthic organisms (Allen and Hudson, 1970) 


387 


11.7.3.1. Corals, sponges, mollusks 


87 0 
10-94 

44-74 
10-86 
73 0 

92 

82 0 

40-77 

91-92 

53-58 
89 0 
92 0 
92 0 

88 0 
58-59 
60 0 

11.7.3.2. 

58 

59 0 
65-66 

11.7.3.3. 

70 0 

84-85 

84-86 

66 0 

60-64 

58-59 

57- 62 

58- 59 
58-59 
58-63 

58- 64 

59- 62 

60 0 

63- 65 
63 

63 

64- 65 

64- 65 

64 

65- 67 
65-67 


Invertebrates in seagrasses (Virnstein, 1987) 

Natural and anthropogenic variations based on O and C isotopes in coral 
(Swart et al., 1994) 

Coral growth and C and O isotopes (Emiliani et al., 1978) 

Coral growth perturbations (Hudson et al., 1989) 

Growth habits and ecology of the stony corals from Don Quixote Bank 
(Chase, 1973) 

Coral black band disease (Kuta and Richardson, 1994) 

Thermal stress of coral reefs (Walker et al., 1982) 

Sponge harvest (Stevely et al., 1978) 

Sponge mass mortality, juvenile lobsters and Hurricane Andrew (Butler et 
al., 1994) 

Molluscan distribution (Turney and Perkins, 1972) 

Mollusks in sediment (Shaw, 1989) 

Epibenthic gastropods (McClanahan, 1992) 

Population estimates of gastropods (McClanahan and Muthiga, 1992) 

Chiton species (Lyons, 1988) 

Oxygen and carbons isotopes in mollusks (Lloyd, 1964) 

Oxygen and carbons isotopes in mollusks (Lloyd, 1960) 

Echinoderms 

Distribution and salinity tolerance of the amphiurid brittlestar (Thomas, 
1961) 

Brittle stars (Thomas, 1959) 

Growth rate of seastar (Halpern, 1970) 

Amphipods, shrimp, crabs, lobster 

Littoral Crustacea (Rouse, 1970) 

Decapods and stomatopods (Holmquist et al., 1989) 

Decapods and stomatopods (Holmquist et al., 1989) 

Ostracoda of the Vaca Key (Kontrovitz, 1966) 

Lancelots (Pierce, 1965) 

Palaemonid shrimp (Manning, 1961) 

Pink shrimp biology (Tabb et al., 1962) 

Migration, mortality and growth of pink shrimp (Costello and Allen, 1959) 
Pink shrimp migration and growth (Costello and Allen, 1961) 

Geographic distribution of pink shrimp (Costello and Allen, 1966) 

Releases and recoveries of marked pink shrimp (Allen and Costello, 1966) 
Early stages of the pink shrimp (Jones et al., 1970) 

Early life history of pink shrimp (Dobkin, 1960) 

Prediction of success of commercial shrimp fishing (Yokel et al., 1969) 

Food of juvenile migrating pink shrimp (Sastrakusumah, 1971) 

Pink shrimp abundance (Idyll et al., 1965) 

Migrating juvenile pink shrimp in Buttonwood Canal (Beardsley, 1967) 
Migrating juvenile pink shrimp in Buttonwood Canal (Beardsley, 1970) 

Pink shrimp life history (Costello and Allen, 1965) 

Catches of post larval pink shrimp in Everglades and commercial catches at 
Tortugas (Roessler and Rehrer, 1971) 

Catches of post larval pink shrimp in Everglades and commercial catches at 
Tortugas (Roessler et al., 1969) 


388 


65-67 

65-68 

65- 68 
65 

65 0 

66- 67 
66-68 
66-81 

67- 68 

67 

67 

67 

67 0 

67 0 

68 0 
69 0 
69 0 

69 0 

70 0 
70 0 
72 0 
81-86 

83- 84 
83 0 
82 

82-84 

82- 84 
89 0 
79-80 
83 0 
60 0 

84- 85 

77- 78 
84-85 

83- 85 
83-84 

78- 79 
92 0 
86 

91-92 

92 

88 

88-89 
80 0 
78-80 

75-79 

85 

80 


Pink shrimp study (Costello and Allen, 1968) 

Pink shrimp (Costello et al., 1986) 

Pink shrimp study (Costello and Allen, 1969) 

Pink shrimp study (Costello and Allen, 1966) 

Shrimp fisheries and freshwater (Idyll, 1965) 

Abundance of pink shrimp on nursery grounds (Idyll et al., 1968) 

Post larval shrimp (Allen et al., 1980) 

Pink shrimp fisheries (Browder, 1985) 

Morphometric and meristic study of postlarval brown, white and pink 
shrimp (Chuensri, 1968) 

Pink shrimp migration and catch (Idyll and Roeslerr, 1968) 

Pink shrimp study (Costello and Allen, 1968) 

Seasonal changes in abundance of postlarvae of pink shrimp (Idyll and 
Roeslerr, 1968) 

Activity of juvenile pink shrimp (Wickham, 1967) 

Fishes and juvenile stages of pink shrimp from Buttonwood Canal (Yokel et 
al., 1967) 

Substrate emergence of pink shrimp (Hughes, 1968) 

Endogenous control of swimming in pink shrimp (Hughes, 1969) 

Tidal transport mechanism of pink shrimp (Hughes, 1969) 

Tide-associated movements of pink shrimp (Hughes, 1969) 

Migration of pink shrimp from Everglades to Tortugas (Yokel, 1970) 
Synopsis of biological data on pink shrimp (Costello and Allen, 1970) 
Tide-associated displacements of pink shrimp (Hughes, 1972) 

Pink shrimp abundance (Robblee and Tilmant, 1989) 

Caridean shrimp (Larson and Ramus, 1984) 

Pink shrimp life history (Bielsa et al., 1983) 

Geographical variation, biology and hydridization of crabs (Bert, 1985) 
Ecology of mangrove crabs (Wilson, 1989) 

Habitat use by mangrove crabs (Wilson, 1985) 

Stone crabs (Bert and Stevely, 1989) 

Stone crabs (Bert et al., 1986) 

Stone crab population (Bert et al., 1983) 

Growth changes in stone crabs (Manning, 1960) 

Declawing of stone crabs (Perrine, 1987) 

Mortality associated with declawing stone crabs (Davis et al, 1978) 
Mortality and catchability of stone crabs (Ehrhardt, 1990) 

Cooperative stone crab research (Ehrhardt, 1985) 

Abundance and impact of fishing on stone crabs (Ehrhardt et al., 1990) 

Spiny lobster (Lyons et al., 1981) 

Spiny lobster habitat (Eggleston and Lipcus, 1992) 

Spiny lobster puereli (Butler and Herrnkind, 1991) 

Seasonality, ontogeny and sociality of juvenile lobsters (Childress and 
Herrnkind, 1994) 

Temperature, salinity, and larval transport on the distribution of juvenile 
spiny lobster (Field and Butler, 1994) 

Predation on juvenile spiny lobster (Smith and Herrnkind, 1992) 

Population dynamics of juvenile lobsters (Forcucci et al., 1994) 

Juvenile spiny lobster management (Davis, 1980) 

Recreational lobster fishery and population dynamics (Davis and Dodrill, 
1989) 

Marine parks and lobster fishery (Davis and Dodrill, 1980) 

Live lobster decoys (Heatwole et al., 1988) 

Spiny lobster trap fishery (Hunt et al., 1986) 


389 


11.7.3.4. Fish 


78 0 
87 0 
73-76 
54-55 
79-80 
73-74 
84-85 

84-85 

84-85 

84-85 

84-85 

71-72 

85 0 

84-85 

84-85 

79 

71-72 

84-85 

84-85 

57- 70 

89- 90 
89 0 

58- 86 
76-79 
58-86 
60-61 

58- 86 
66 0 

90- 91 

59- 60 
58-64 
58-86 
78-80 
64 0 
83-84 

73-76, 82-85 


59-60 
59-60 
64 0 
61-62 
63-64 
63-64 
84-85 

59-60 

78-80 


Rare and endangered biota: fishes (Gilbert, 1978) 

Subtropical-tropical seagrass fish communities (Gilmore, 1987) 

Ecological study of fishes and water quality (Schmidt, 1979) 

Fish from the southern tip of Florida (Kilby and Caldwell, 1955) 

Dominant forage fishes and decapods in Whitewater Bay (Schmidt, 1993) 
Seasonal biomass of fishes (Schmidt, 1979) 

Distribution and assemblages of fish in basins and channels (Thayer and 
Chester, 1989) 

Epibenthic fish communities in mudbanks (Sogard et al. , 1987) 

Spatial distribution and trends in fishes of seagrass covered mudbank 
(Sogard et al., 1989) 

Utilization of seagrasses by fish (Part 1) (Sogard et al., 1989) 

Utilization of seagrasses by fish (Part 2) (Sogard et al., 1989) 

Fishes and invertebrates between Cape Romano and Cape Sable (Lindall et 
al., 1974) 

Habitat utilization by young-of-year (Thayer et al., 1985) 

Movement of sports fish (Bryant et al., 1989) 

Finfish standing stock estimates (Mengel et al., 1989) 

Predator-prey interactions in Shark River (Schmidt, 1979) 

Ichthyoplankton survey (Collins and Finucane, 1984) 

Ichthyoplankton (Powell et al., 1987) 

Ichthyoplankton (Powell et al., 1989) 

Review of juvenile fish studies (Tabb and Roessler, 1989) 

Food habits of mangrove fishes (Ley et al., 1994) 

Parasitic infection of seahorses (Vincent and Clifton-Hadley, 1989) 

Snook (Tilmant et al., 1989) 

Snook biology (Thue et al., 1983) 

Red drum (Tilmant et al., 1989) 

Red drum biology (Yokel, 1966) 

Spotted seatrout (Rutherford et al., 1989) 

Spotted seatrout (Tabb, 1966) 

Conservation standards for spotted seatrout (Schirripa and Goodyear, 
1994) 

Subpopulations of spotted seatrout (Iversen and Tabb, 1962) 

Blue croaker (Robins and Tabb, 1965) 

Gray snapper (Rutherford et al., 1989) 

Gray snapper (Rutherford et al., 1983) 

Gray snapper (Starck, 1964) 

Food web of gray snapper (Harrigan, 1986) 

Early life history of spotted seatrout, red drum, gray snapper, and snook 
(Rutherford et al., 1986) 

Growth and food of the gray snapper (Croker, 1960) 

Growth and food of the gray snapper (Croker, 1962) 

Trematodes in gray snapper (Schroeder, 64) 

Red drum parasites (Iversen and Yokel, 1963) 

Lizardfish parasites (Overstreet, 1966) 

Lizardfish parasites (Overstreet, 1968) 

Distribution of spotted seatrout and gray snapper juveniles (Chester and 
Thayer, 1990) 

Spotted seatrout biology (Stewart, 1961) 

Spotted seatrout age, growth and mortality (Rutherford, 1982) 


390 


83-85 

63 

73-80 

63- 64 

64- 65 
90-91 

83- 85 

84- 85 

73-76, 82-85 
73-76 
84-85 
83 

73-80 

73-76 

20-60 

20-60 

79-80 

73-74 

82-86 

82-86 

88-90 

84-85 

84-85 

89 0 
40 

90, 93 

90 

58-78 

58- 78 

59- 85 
59-65 
40-78 
94 0 


77- 92 
79 0 
79 0 

11.7.3.5. Birds 

74-75 
88 0 

85- 86 
61-62 

87- 89 

88- 91 

94 0 

68-84 

86- 87 

78- 79 
68-74 
28 0 


Mayan cichlid distribution (Loftus, 1987) 

Needlefish biology (Eidman, 1967) 

Mosquitofish (Getter, 1982) 

Mojarra catch (Waldinger, 1968) 

Systematics of southern Florida anchovies (Daley, 1970) 

Utilization of Bay as nursery by juvenile grunts (Peters et al., 1994) 

Mullet population (Scott et al., 1989) 

Stripped mullet movement (Funicelli et al., 1989) 

Early life of seatrout and snapper (Rutherford et al., 1989) 

Feeding habits of young barracuda (Schmidt, 1989) 

Food habits of juvenile spotted seatrout and gray snapper (Hettler, 1989) 
Gray snapper nutrition (Harrigan et al., 1989) 

Ecology of key silverside (Getter, 1981) 

Systematics and biology of mangrove gambusia (Getter, 1976) 

Tarpon and ox-eye biology (Wade, 1962) 

Tarpon and ox-eye (Wade, 1962) 

Lemon sharks (Gruber, 1982) 

Predation by lemon shark nutrition (Schmidt, 1986) 

Reproduction of bonnethead shark (Parsons, 1993) 

Age determination of bonnethead shark (Parsons, 1993) 

Tagging of juvenile lemon sharks (Manire and Gruber, 1991) 

Trammel net efficiency (Dewey et al., 1989) 

Survival of tagged fish (Ludwig et al., 1989) 

Survival of tagged fish (Ludwig et al., 1989) 

Mortality of fishes due to cold (Miller, 1940) 

Fish kills in Flamingo (Schmidt, 1993) 

Causes of fish kills in Flamingo (Schmidt and Robblee, 1994) 

Recreational and commercial fisheries (Davis, 1980) 

Changes in red drum and spotted seatrout fisheries (Davis, 1980) 

Gamefish harvest (Tilmant et al., 1990) 

Catch rates and environmental conditions (Higman, 1967) 

Recent trends in fisheries (Tilmant, 1989) 

Relationships of sport fisheries catches to freshwater inflow (Smith and 
Robblee, 1994) 

Fisheries trends from Monroe County (Bohnsack et al., 1994) 

Fisheries management in Everglades (Centaur Associates, 1979) 

Fisheries management options in Everglades (Davis, 1979) 


Nesting wading birds (Kushland and White, 1977) 

Population and reproduction of wading birds (Ogden and Sprunt, 1988) 

Least bittern nesting (Bowman and Bancroft, 1989) 

White crowned pigeons (Sprunt, 1977) 

White crowned pigeon nesting (Strong et al., 1991) 

Postfledging dispersal of white-crowned pigeons (Strong and Bancroft, 
1994) 

White-crowned pigeon population size from flight-line counts (Strong et al., 
1994) 

Nesting ospreys (Fleming et al., 1989) 

Osprey reproduction (Bowman et al., 1989) 

Brood reduction in ospreys (Poole, 1982) 

Bald eagle territoriality (Ogden, 1975) 

Great white heron and Wurdermann's heron (Holt, 1928) 


391 


23, 81-84 

34- 39, 58-63, 

65, 67-68, 84 
81 

35- 40, 48, 50- 
62, 66, 68-69, 

75, 77-78, 84-87 
38, 40, 44, 57, 

59, 78 

76-82 
76-82 
87 0 
78 


Great white herons (Powell and Powell, 1986) 

Great white herons (Powell et ai, 1989) 

Food availability and reproduction of great white heron (Powell, 1983) 
Roseate spoonbill (Powell et ai, 1989) 


Reddish egret (Powell et ai, 1989) 

Brown pelican (Kushlan and Frohring, 1985) 
Laughing gulls (Frohring and Kushlan, 1986) 
Habitat use by wading birds (Powell, 1987) 
Sibling aggression in ospreys (Poole, 1979) 


11.7.3.6. Reptiles 


40 0 

76- 81 
80 0 
64-73 

64 

65 

66 

81-83 

49-51 

68-75 

77- 81 

78 0 
77-80 
77-82 

77- 82 

78- 79 

78- 79 

79 

79- 80 

79- 80 
70-82 

80- 81 

80 

77-78 

77-82 


Herpetology of Florida (Carr, 1940) 

Salinity and distribution of reptiles (Dunson and Mazzotti, 1989) 

Snake survival in seawater (Dunson, 1980) 

Loggerhead sea turtle nesting (Davis and Whiting, 1977) 

Sea turtle nesting survey on Cape Sable (Holden, 1964) 

Sea turtle nesting (Holden, 1965) 

Factors affecting nesting of turtles (Klukas, 1967) 

Salinity tolerance of emydid turtles (Dunson and Seidel, 1986) 
Crocodiles (Moore, 1953) 

Status of American crocodile (Ogden, 1978) 

Ecology of the American Crocodile (Mazzotti, 1983) 

American crocodile (Ogden, 1978) 

Distribution of crocodiles (Kushlan and Mazzotti, 1989) 

Population biology of crocodiles (Kushlan and Mazzotti, 1989) 

Population biology and status of crocodiles (Kushlan and Mazzotti, 1982) 
Osmoregulation in crocodiles (Dunson, 1980) 

Salinity and crocodiles (Dunson, 1982) 

Osmoregulation in crocodiles (Dunson, 1982) 

Crocodile nests (Lutz and Dunbar-Cooper, 1982) 

Crocodile nests (Lutz and Dunbar-Cooper, 1984) 

Crocodile nesting success (Mazzotti, 1989) 

Crocodile nest desiccation and flooding (Mazzotti et ai, 1988) 

Heavy metals in crocodile eggs (Stoneburger and Kushlan, 1984) 
Organochlorine residues in crocodile eggs (Hall et ai, 1979) 

Management of crocodiles (Mazzotti, 1988) 


11.7.3.7. Mammals 


53 0 

73 0 

49-50 

73-75 

73-76 

73-74 

79 

49-55 
91 0 
77-81 


Marine mammals in Florida (Moore, 1953) 

Mammals in the Gulf of Mexico (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1973) 
Status of manatees (Moore, 1951) 

Distribution and abundance of marine mammals (Odell, 1976) 
Distribution and abundance of marine mammals (Odell, 1976) 
Aerial censuses of bottlenose dolphins (Odell, 1975) 

Aerial survey of manatees and dolphins (Irvine et ai, 1979) 
Manatee aggregations (Moore, 1956) 

Mammals in Florida waters (Reynolds and Odell, 1991) 

Food habits of the manatee (Ledder, 1987) 


392 


72 Recurrent Pseudorca stranding (Odell et ai, 1980) 

76 Summary of information on Pseudorca stranding (Odell and Asper, 1977) 

79 0 Summary of information on Pseudorca stranding (Odell et ai, 1979) 

8 5 Organochlorines in bottlenose dolphins and Pygmy sperm whales (King, 

1987) 

11.8. Pollutant studies 


80-85 Methane flux (Harriss et ai, 1988) 

7 9 Pesticide use observations, Monroe County (Anonymous, 1980) 

71 Input, cycling, and fate of heavy metal and pesticides pollutants in 

estuaries of the western Everglades (Harriss et ai, 1971) 

73 0 Mercury geochemistry (Andren, 1973) 

94 0 Mercury (Atkeson, 1994) 

92 0 Biogeochemistry of light hydrocarbons in wetlands (Barber, 1992) 

11.9. Related studies 

1 3-86 Sea level change at Key West (Hanson and Maul, 1993) 

13-86 Sea level change at Key West (Maul and Martin, 1993) 

10-85 Florida freezes (Myers, 1986) 

73-76 Florida sea breeze and rainfall (Burpee and Lahiff, 1984) 

73-76 Florida sea breeze convergence (Burpee, 1979) 

94 0 Geochemical studies of wetlands (Kotra et ai, 1994) 

87 0 Reproductive biology of tropical seagrasses (Moffler and Durako, 1987) 

94 0 Elemental composition of benthic macroalgae in the Keys (Hanisak and 

Miller, 1994) 

94 0 Atmospheric deposition of mercury (Guentzel et ai, 1994) 

94 0 Mercury and trace metals in Everglades flooded soils (Rood et ai, 1994) 

93 0 Increased mercury accumulation rates in Everglades sediment (Rood et ai, 

1993) 

93 Eutrophication in methylmercury accumulation (Barkay et ai, 1994) 

94 0 Nutrient transport by wading birds in the Everglades (Frederick and Powell, 

1994) 

94 0 Wading bird foraging patterns, colony locations, and hydrology in the 

Everglades (Bancroft et ai, 1994) 

31-46, 74-89 Wading bird nesting colony dynamics (Ogden, 1994) 

11.9. Anthropogenic events 

Railroad construction 
Highway construction 
Drainage efforts 

Turkey Point Nuclear Power Plant 
Homestead Air Force Base 
Jetport 

Anecdotal information 

Everglades National Park 

Florida Keys Marine Sanctuary 

Bahia Honda State Park 

Legislation 

PCB production 

DDT use 


393 









































APPENDIX III 


Graphical presentation of historical events and published studies 

[Chronological sequence of published studies is by date of sampling (if known) or in the case of 
calculated or inferred parameters by the earliest date determined. Geological studies describing 
formation of geological features in the area are listed by publication date. Publication date of a 
paper or report is noted with a dashed line.] 


395 


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Figure 11.3. Fires, rainfall and tornadoes (cont.). 















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Figure III.4. Fishing trends and population. 
















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410 


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Geology - Sediments/sedimentation wv Carbonate geochemistry and 

sedimentology (Gleece, 1962) 

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413 


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414 













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Biology - Fauna - Corals, sponges, mollusks 







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420 











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APPENDIX IV 


References used in Appendices I, II and III 


Aisner, J. A. (1980) Origin and development of Arsenic Bank, a Holocene biotherm in 
southwestern Florida Bay. Fla. Sci. . 43(suppl. 1):43-4. 

Aisner, J. A., and S. B. Upchurch (1980) Origin and development of Arsenic Bank, a Holocene 
biotherm in southwestern Florida Bay. Geol. Soc, Amer. Abs. . 12(4): 169. 

Aisner, J. A., and S. B. Upchurch (1981) Genesis of a skeletal mound. Geol. Soc. Amer. Abs. . 
1 3(7):394. 

Allen, D. M., and T. J. Costello (1966) Releases and recoveries of marked pink shrimp, Penaeus 
duorarum, in south Florida waters, 1958-1964. Data Rep. 11. US Fish and Wildlife Service, 
Washington, DC. 77 pp. 

Allen, D. M., and J. H. Hudson (1970) A sled-mounted suction sampler for benthic organisms. 
Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish. No. 614. US Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. 5 pp. 

Allen, D. M., J. H. Hudson, and T. J. Costello (1980) Postlarval shrimp ( Penaeus) in the Florida 
Keys: species, size, and seasonal abundance. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 30:21-33. 

Andren, A. W. (1973) The geochemistry of mercury in three estuaries from the Gulf of Mexico. 
Ph. D. Dissertation. Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL. 140 pp. 

Andrews, J. E. (1991) Geochemical indicators of depositional and early diagenetic facies in 
Holocene carbonate muds, and their preservation potential during stabilization. Chem. Geol. . 
93(3-4):267-89. 

Anonymous (1980) Pesticide use observations, Monroe County, Florida, March - June 1979. 
USEPA, National Enforcement Investigations Center (NEIC). Denver, CO. 36 pp. 

Atkeson, T. D. (1994) Mercury in Florida's environment. Abs., ASLO/PSA Joint Mtg., Miami, 
FL. a-3. 

Ball, M. M., E. A. Shinn, and K. W. Stockman (1967) The geologic effects of Hurricane Donna in 
south Florida. J. Geol. . 75(5):583-97. 

Bancroft, G. T., A. M. Strong, R. J. Sawicki, W. Hoffman, and S. D. Jewell (1994) Relationships 
among wading bird foraging patterns, colony locations, and hydrology in the Everglades. In: 
Everglades: The Ecosystem and Its Restoration . S. M. Davis and J. C. Ogden (eds.) St. Lucie 
Press, Delray Beach, FL. 

Baratta, A. M., and R. J. Fennema (1994) The affects of wind, rain, and water releases on the 
water depth and salinity of northeast Florida Bay. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3): 1072. 

Barber, T. R. (1992) Biogeochemistry of light hydrocarbons in South Florida wetlands. Ph. D. 
Dissertation. University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, FL. 166 pp. 


455 










Barber, T. R., and P. R. Carlson (1993) Effects of seagrass die-off on benthic fluxes and 
porewater concentrations of XC0 2 , £H 2 S, and CH 4 in Florida Bay sediments. Proc., 10th Annual 
Meeting, Internatl. Society of Environmental Biogeochemistry. R. S. Oremland (ed.). 530-50. 

Barkay, T., P. Vaithiyanatahn, R. Kavanaugh, E. Saouter, and C. J. Richardson (1994) Is there a 
role for eutrophication in methylmercury accumulation in the Florida Everglades? Abs., 
ASLO/PSA Joint Mtg., Miami, FL. a-4. 

Beardsley, G. L. (1967) Distribution in the water column of migrating juvenile pink shrimp, 
Penaeus duorarum, Burkenroad in Buttonwood Canal, Everglades National Park, Florida. Ph. D. 
Dissertation., University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL. 91 pp. 

Beardsley, G. L. (1970) Distribution of migrating juvenile pink shrimp, Penaeus duorarum, 
Burkenroad, in Buttonwood Canal, Everglades National Park, Florida. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.. 
99(2):401 -8. 

Beccasio, A. D., N. Fotheringham, A. E. Redfield, and et al. (1982) Gulf coast ecological 
inventory: user's guide and information base. Biological Services Program, US Fish and Wildlife 
Service, Washington, DC. 191 pp. 

Berner, R. A. (1966) Diagenesis of carbonate sediments: interaction of magnesium in sea water 
with mineral grains. Science . 153:188-191. 

Berner, R. A. (1967) Comparative dissolution characteristics of carbonate minerals in the 
presence and absence of aqueous magnesium ion. Am. J. Sci. . 265(1 ):45-70. 

Bert, T. M. (1985) Geographic variation, population biology, and hybridization in Menippe 
mercenaria and evolution in the genus Menippe in the southwestern North Atlantic Ocean. Ph.D. 
Dissertation. Yale University, New Haven, CT. 305 pp. 

Bert, T. M., J. W. Dodrill, G. E. Davis, and J. T. Tilmant (1983) The population dynamics of the 
stone crab ( Menippe mercenaria) in Everglades and Biscayne Parks. Fla. Sci. . 46 (Suppl. 1):24. 

Bert, T. M., and J. M. Stevely (1989) Population characteristics of the stone crab, Menippe 
mercenaria, in Florida Bay and the Florida Keys. Symp. on Florida Bay: A Subtropical Lagoon. 
Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44( 1 ):515. 

Bert, T. M., J. T. Tilmant, J. W. Dodrill and G. E. Davis (1986) Aspects of the population 
dynamics and biology of the stone crab ( Menippe mercenaria) in Everglades and Biscayne 
National Parks as determined by trapping. Rep. SFRC-86/04. South Florida Research Center, 
Everglades National Park, Homestead, FL. 77 pp. 

Bielsa, L. M., H. Murdich and R. F. Labisky (1983) Species profiles: life histories and 
environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates (south Florida) - pink shrimp. 
US Fish Wildlife Service FWS/OBS-82/11.17. US Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4. 21 pp. 

Bock, W. D. (1961) The benthonic foraminifera of southwestern Florida Bay. M. S. Thesis. 
University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wl. 

Bock, W. D. (1971) A handbook of the benthonic foraminifera of Florida Bay and adjacent 
waters. Contribution 1360, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, Miami, FL. 
Memoir 1, Miami Geological Society. A Symposium of Recent South Florida Foraminifera. J. I. 
Jones and W. D. Bock (eds.). Miami Geological Society, Miami, FL. 1-72. 


456 







Bohnsack, J. A., D. E. Harper, and D. B. McClellan (1994) Fisheries trends from Monroe 
County, Florida. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 54(3):982-1018. 

Bosence, D. (1989) Biogenic carbonate production in Florida Bay. Symp. on Florida Bay: A 
Subtropical Lagoon. Miami, FL. June, 1987. Bull. Mar. Sci. . 44(1 ):419-33. 

Bosence, D. (1989) Carbonate budgets for carbonate mounds Florida, USA. Proc., 6th Coral 
Reef Symposium, Townsville, Australia. Vol. 2. 529-34. 

Bosence, D. (1989) Surface sublittoral sediments of Florida Bay. Symp. on Florida Bay: A 
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495 

































































SUBJECT INDEX TO APPENDIX I 


Aerial photography 123, 124, 129, 177, 

205, 208, 252, 302, 334, 366 

Algae 117, 133, 134, 136, 153, 165, 176, 

177, 186, 190, 191, 196, 202, 205, 210, 

224, 228, 235, 242, 248, 252, 256, 261, 

268, 269, 270, 276, 277, 282, 299, 302, 

305, 308, 309, 313, 314, 319, 326, 331, 

338, 348, 353, 357, 369, 377 

Algal blooms 134, 365, 366 

Alpha-keto acids 310 

Amino acids 237, 249, 250, 268, 335 

Ammonium 249 

Amphibians 

Leopard frogs 201 
Amphypods 

Lancelots 159 
Arsenic Bank 256, 261 
Arthropods 368 
Assemblages 190 
Bacteria 365 
Bald Eagle Key 316, 330 
Banks (See Mudbanks) 

Barnes Sound 116, 117, 118, 143, 144, 

315, 362 
Basins (See Lakes) 

Benthic communities 142, 305 
Bibliography 281 

Big Pine Key 118, 277, 304, 321, 329 
Biota 377 

Birds 122, 268, 279, 376 
Bald eagles 192 
Cattle egrets 201 
Common egrets 201 
Cormorants 201 
Great blue herons 312 
Great egrets 312, 372, 375 
Great white herons 122, 124, 263, 365 
Laughing gulls 226 
Least bittern 302 
Little blue ibis 312 

Nesting/reproduction 122, 124, 161, 
192, 193, 218, 226, 239, 241, 263, 
302, 304, 315, 317 

Ospreys 192, 193, 201, 239, 241, 304, 
365 

Pelicans 201 
Population 124, 218 
Red shouldered hawks 201 
Reddish egrets 124, 312 
Roseate spoonbills 124, 312 
Snowy egrets 312, 372 


Sooty terns 201 
Tricolored heron 372 
Tricolored ibis 312 

White crowned pigeons 161, 315, 321, 
367 

White ibis 201, 312, 372, 375 
Wood storck 372 
Wundermann's heron 122 
Biscayne Bay 117, 118, 124, 136, 144, 

152, 206, 208, 209, 211, 220, 234, 239, 
250, 252, 255, 274, 301, 310, 311, 335, 
346, 367, 369 

Black Betsy Keys 133, 142, 300 

Blackwater Sound 118, 142, 143, 337, 357 

Bob Allen Key 318 

Bob Allen Key Bank 319 

Bottle Key 144, 302 

Bottle Shoal 156 

Bradley Key 292 

Brittlestar 142 

Buchanan Bank 293, 294 

Buchanan Key 286, 294, 302 

Butternut Key 302 

Buttonwood Canal 117, 138, 141, 163, 164, 
165, 166, 167, 175, 176, 179, 188, 197, 

203, 340 

Buttonwood Key 142 

Buttonwood Sound 161, 162, 163, 232, 337 

C-111 canal 187, 305, 306, 321, 359 

Caesar's Creek Bank 369 

Calusa Keys 133, 135 

Canals, not drainage (See Channels) 

Cape Romano 200 

Cape Sable 121, 123, 136, 157, 158, 159, 
168, 170, 175, 177, 180, 186, 195, 200, 

202, 222, 223, 225, 231, 234, 244, 276, 

278, 285, 300, 301, 354 

Captain Basin 276 

Captain Key 156 

Captain Key Bank 271 

Captain Shoal 156 

Captains Key 142 

Captains Key Bank 259 

Card Sound 116, 118, 143, 315, 362, 367 

Cedar Key 159 

Channels 134, 138, 158, 159, 162, 163, 
164, 166, 170, 182, 186, 195, 197, 199, 

203, 213, 214, 224, 230, 231, 264, 271, 

280, 283, 284, 286, 288, 291, 303, 304, 

345 

Chickens Reef 129 


497 


Chlorinated pesticides (See Organochlorines) 
Chlorophyll (See Water chemistry) 

Circulation 368 
Clearwater Pass 254 

Climatology 116, 125, 126, 134, 137, 204, 
208, 218, 224, 263, 338, 355, 360, 370, 
371, 373 

Cluett Key 221, 256, 307, 325, 350 

Cold fronts 264 

Cold water stress 230, 231 

Conch Key 347 

Content Key 277 

Coon Key 293 

Coot Bay 136, 141, 142, 167, 225, 244, 
292, 300, 340 

Coral 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 129, 196, 
206, 210, 220, 221, 224, 230, 231, 237, 
256, 271, 342, 345, 348, 358 
Corals 

Black band disease 350 
Cotton Key 300 
Cowpens Key 286 
Crab Key 156, 299, 323 
Crab Key Bank 259, 316 
Crab Key Basin 270 
Crab Shoal 156 

Crane Key 133, 135, 155, 160, 200, 256, 
299, 300, 307, 316, 325, 326, 344, 345 
Cretaceous 269 

Cross Bank 155, 184, 286, 293, 302, 316, 
344 

Cross Key 252 
Cross Key Bank 237 
Crustacea 268, 294 

Blue crabs 137, 201, 237, 250, 254, 
292 

Brown shrimp 188 
Cariddean shrimp 277 
Crabs 266 
Crayfish 201 
Fisheries 239 

Lobsters 220, 242, 258, 292, 295, 302, 
319, 320, 346, 347, 348 
Mangrove crabs 273 
Ornate crabs 292 

Pink shrimp 137, 141, 143, 144, 154, 
155, 157, 164, 165, 167, 168, 175, 

177, 178, 179, 180, 182, 183, 184, 

188, 190, 193, 194, 196, 197, 200, 

201, 203, 210, 237, 250, 254, 266, 

274, 292, 313, 365 

Shrimp 127, 143 
Species list 197 

Spiny lobsters 201, 237, 239, 256 


Stone crabs 157, 201, 233, 237, 252, 
274, 276, 278, 285, 288, 322 
White shrimp 188 
Dave Foy Bank 293 

DDT and metabolites (See Organochlorines) 
Decapods 293, 343 
Detritus 190 

Diatoms 215, 219, 247, 257, 267 
Dieldrin (See Organochlorines) 

Dildo Key 303 

Dildo Key Bank 334 

Dissolved carbon dioxide (See Water 

chemistry) 

Dissolved oxygen (See Water chemistry) 

Don Quixote Bank 206 

Drainage canals 117, 118, 138, 192, 307 

Dry Tortugas 141, 143, 144, 149, 154, 

167, 179, 180, 182, 183, 188, 197, 219, 

223, 230, 231, 237, 242, 266 

Duck Key 320 

Dump Key 293 

Eagle Key 256, 286, 325 

Eagle Key Bank 293 

East Key 200, 300, 329 

Echinoderms 

Brittle stars 149 
Tropical sea stars 178 
Ecology 136, 222 
El Nino 118, 371 
Elements 

Al 117, 259, 270, 299, 301 
As 117, 201, 301, 355 
B 317 
Ba 160 

C 119, 150, 160, 207, 249, 259, 276, 
277, 315, 333, 336, 356, 362, 377 
Ca 117, 156, 227, 231, 270, 298, 299, 
316, 319, 323, 340, 346, 352 
Cd 198, 201, 259, 301, 333 
Cl 316, 352 

Co 198, 210, 259, 268, 335 

Cr 210, 259, 268, 301, 333, 335 

Cu 117, 198, 201, 259, 301, 333, 335 

F 117, 319, 340, 346, 352 

Fe 1 17, 198, 246, 259, 270, 299, 323, 

335, 344 

H 356 

Hg 117, 201, 204, 206, 210, 259, 301, 
333, 356, 360, 375, 377 
I 259 

K 270, 299 

Mg 117, 150, 160, 183, 231, 270, 298, 
299, 316, 319, 323, 344, 346, 352 
Mn 117, 160, 198, 333, 335, 344 


498 


Mo 259 

N 229, 249, 276, 277, 314, 315, 323, 
333, 336, 352, 355, 356, 362, 377 
Na 352 

Ni 198, 259, 301, 333, 335 
O 119 

P 277, 314, 315, 333, 336, 344, 355, 
362, 377 

Pb 115, 198, 199, 201, 210, 259, 268, 
301, 335 

S 198, 246, 263, 285, 323, 335, 352, 
377 

Si 270, 299 

Sr 156, 160, 199, 231, 259, 270, 299, 
316, 319, 323, 339, 340, 344, 346 
Ti 270, 299 

Zn 198, 201, 210, 268, 301, 333, 335 
Elliott Key 126 
Energy patterns 238 
Eocene 272 
Eutrophication 356 

Evolution/Erosion 123, 124, 125, 229, 282, 
318, 334 

Fauna 130, 134, 157, 202, 208, 234, 266, 
269, 281, 296, 306 

Species list 136, 177, 206 
Featherbed Banks 369 
Field/Guidebook 141, 163, 171, 203, 219 
Fiesta Key 320, 347, 352 
Fires 207 

Fish 122, 141, 157, 210, 212, 238, 268, 
287, 289, 290, 291, 294, 300, 343, 352 
Abundance 320 
Amberjack 237 
Anchovies 176 
Barracuda 171, 213 
Bay anchovy 200 
Black drum 127, 284 
Blue croaker 145 
Blue stripped grunt 342 
Bluegills 201 
Bonefish 126, 127 
Bonnethead shark 273, 274 
Crevalle jack 201, 287 
Die offs 340 
Fantail mullet 200 
Florida gar 201 
Food web 277 
French grunt 342 
Gafftopsail catfish 285, 287 
Goldspotted killifish 213, 337 
Gray snapper 126, 127, 146, 151, 153, 
154, 170, 171, 201, 213, 214, 244, 


275, 276, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 

289, 291, 300, 319, 327, 365, 367 

Green moray 171 

Grouper 237 

Grunts 126 

Gulf killifish 337 

Jacks 126 

Jewfish 237 

Key silverside 214, 238 

Kills 263, 355 

King mackerel 237 

Lane snapper 250 

Largemouth bass 201 

Lemon shark 210, 253, 321 

Lizardfish 166 

Mangrove gambusia 212 

Mangrove mosquitofish 238 

Mayan cichlid 279, 340 

Mayan cichlids 

Moonfish 126 

Mortality 126 

Mosquito fish 201, 214 

Mosquito killifish 374 

Mullet 126, 278 

Nassau grouper 237 

Needlefish 163 

Ox-eye 121, 122 

Parasites 166, 171 

Pigfish 250, 254, 342 

Pinfish 200, 201, 250, 254, 285, 287, 

309, 313 

Porgie 126 

Rainwater killifish 213 

Red drum 127, 146, 148, 154, 159, 

161, 213, 284, 287, 288, 300, 367 

Redfin needlefish 337 

Redfish 287, 365 

Rivulus 238 

Sailors choice 342 

Sea catfish 201, 285, 287 

Seahorses 334 

Sheepshead 127, 284, 287 

Silver Jenny 200, 250, 254 

Silver mullet 127, 201 

Silver perch 250, 254 

Snapper 154 

Snook 127, 147, 148, 213, 225, 288, 
289, 300, 365, 367 
Spanish mackerel 127 
Species list 134 

Spotted seatrout 127, 146, 147, 153, 
154, 182, 213, 214, 243, 284, 285, 
286, 287, 288, 289, 291, 300, 309, 
327, 343, 367 


499 


Striped anchovy 200 
Striped mullet 127, 285, 286, 287 
Tarpon 121, 122, 127 
Tidewater mojarra 337 
White grunt 342 
White mullet 285, 287 
Yellowtail snapper 237 
Fisheries 126, 127, 143, 144, 145, 146, 

147, 148, 151, 153, 154, 168, 171, 177, 

182, 184, 196, 199, 213, 220, 245, 246, 

256, 258, 261, 274, 276, 284, 292, 315, 

343, 363, 367 

Monroe County 236 
Flagler Railroad 364 

Flamingo 134, 136, 144, 155, 159, 167, 

222, 243, 245, 285, 338, 340, 341, 343, 
363 

Flora 130, 134, 202, 208, 266, 268, 269, 
281, 304, 306 
Keys 124 
Macroalga 261 
Mangroves 128 
Species list 136, 177 

Florida Keys 115, 116, 118, 119, 121, 123, 
128, 129, 132, 133, 134, 136, 146, 152, 

160, 165, 178, 179, 182, 184, 191, 195, 

198, 199, 201, 206, 209, 211, 214, 219, 

220, 229, 231, 234, 236, 239, 267, 268, 

273, 274, 277, 278, 281, 282, 283, 288, 

289, 292, 302, 304, 311, 312, 314, 315, 

316, 321, 328, 329, 338, 342, 345, 347, 

348, 349, 350, 352, 353, 354, 355, 357, 

362, 363, 364, 366, 373, 377 

Foraminifera 133, 143, 144, 149, 159, 160, 

161, 163, 165, 171, 178, 186, 196, 202, 

224, 227, 232, 233, 237, 239, 250, 256, 

263, 272, 280, 282, 294, 302, 325, 331, 

357 

Freshwater flow 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 
127, 134, 139, 167, 177, 183, 207, 283, 

307, 308, 311, 352, 358, 364, 367 

Garfield Bight 129, 130, 340 
Gas fluxes 356 
Gastropods 352, 353 
Queen conchs 354 

General description 196, 204, 208, 222, 

266, 298 

Geochemistry 161 

Geochronologies 368 

Geology 123, 127, 134, 181, 183, 208, 

216, 269, 328, 363 
Glyoxilic acid 297 
Grassy Key 214 
Ground water 221 


Hawk Channel 144, 195, 345, 352, 353, 

358, 366 

Hens and Chickens Reef 115 
Highway Creek 305, 320, 337 
Hoffman, W. 375 

Holocene 125, 175, 177, 196, 197, 216, 

218, 231, 233, 239, 256, 265, 268, 269, 

271, 282, 298, 299, 307, 318, 324, 325, 

326, 332, 334, 344, 350, 357, 366, 369 

Hoodoo Sound 118 
Humic acids 237 
Humic and fulvic acids 255 
Hurricane Andrew 355 
Hurricanes 119, 120, 124, 136, 140, 155, 
157, 168, 177, 192, 195, 207, 216, 239, 

242, 243, 251, 326, 334, 360, 369 

Andrew 346, 354 
Betsy 157 
Donna 154, 157 
Hydrocarbons 347 
Hydrography 134, 157, 368 
Hypoxia/anoxia 341 
Ichthyoplankton 288, 289 
Interstitial water 150, 268, 299, 316, 338, 
346, 356 
Invertebrates 136 
Abundance 320 
Islamorada 178, 255 

Isotopic composition 115, 119, 129, 143, 

151, 156, 181, 203, 220, 272, 275, 299, 

304, 307, 309, 342, 344 

Jewell, S. D. 375 

Jim Foot Key 256, 325 

Joe Bay 142, 243, 278, 305, 320, 337 

Joe Kemp Key 250, 256, 292, 325 

Johnson Key Basin 266, 277, 315, 335, 338, 

343, 361 

Key Largo 126, 191, 211, 234, 242, 261, 

268, 321, 350, 357, 366 

Key West 126, 149, 182, 188, 211, 214, 

329, 338, 363, 371, 372, 373, 374 

Keys 124, 155, 164, 246 

Lake Key 286 

Lakes 118, 119, 125, 130, 139, 142, 160, 
177, 185, 195, 203, 209, 214, 221, 227, 

247, 266, 268, 270, 271, 282, 284, 286, 

291, 294, 296, 298, 299, 302, 315, 317, 

318, 326, 332, 335 

Lignumvitae Basin 119 
Lignumvitae Key 301 
Lipids 181 

Little Blackwater Sound 181, 305, 320, 337 
Little Madeira Bay 142, 305 
Little Shark River 188 


500 


Loggerhead Key 221 
Long Key 128, 319, 347, 353 
Long Sound 190, 305, 320 
Lower Matecumbe Key 144, 170 
Madeira Bay 270, 276, 299 
Mammals 132, 206, 268 

Dolphins 122, 210, 211, 212, 247, 297 
Manatees 122, 130, 131, 211, 212, 
235, 247, 345, 355, 365 
Pseudorcas 205, 223, 248 
Pygmy sperm whales 297 
Man-of-War Key 256, 325 
Management 275 
Manatee Basin 133 
Mangrove Key 249, 250 
Mangroves 125, 130, 169, 170, 185, 190, 
204, 218, 243, 263, 268, 277, 285, 291, 

300, 303, 320, 334, 337, 344, 352, 354, 

358, 374 

Role in land formation 168 
Marathon 266 
Marquesas 363 

Matecumbe Key 130, 171, 240 
Methane flux 260 
Microfossils 323 

Mineralogy 148, 149, 155, 159, 160, 162, 
175, 180, 183, 186, 187, 190, 194, 199, 

209, 223, 230, 231, 249, 268, 270, 283, 

298, 299, 316, 319, 323, 325, 339, 340, 

344, 346 
Miocene 229 

Mollusks 134, 143, 156, 170, 178, 196, 
203, 256, 261, 263, 270, 316, 333 
Mussels 250 
Queen conchs 237 
Mormon Key 159 
Mosquito Bank 366 
Mosquito control 245 


Mudbanks 

125, 

133, 

137, 

162, 

177, 

193, 

196, 

197, 

199, 

202, 

203, 

213, 

214, 

221, 

227, 

238, 

239, 

245, 

246, 

247, 

248, 

249, 

251, 

256, 

258, 

261, 

266, 

268, 

270, 

271, 

275, 

280, 

282, 

286, 

289, 

290, 

293, 

294, 

295, 

296, 

298, 

302, 

303, 

315, 

316, 

317, 

318, 

319, 

323, 

325, 

330, 

332, 

334, 

338, 


344, 369 

Murray Key 237, 286, 318 

Neogene 215 

Nest Key 135, 142, 300 

Nest Key Pass 133 

Ninemile Bank 245, 256, 300, 325 

Nutrients 261, 277, 280, 305, 306, 314, 

315, 333, 336, 350, 355, 362, 365, 366, 

376, 377 


Organic matter 362 

Organochlorines 198, 201, 234, 297 

Ostracoda 181 

Oyster Bay 254 

Oyster Key 286 

Paleozoic 133 

Panhandle Key 256, 325, 345 
Panhandle Key Bank 256, 325 
Paradise Key 207 
Park Key 300 
Pass Key 286 
Passes (See Channels) 

PCBs (See Organochlorines) 

Peat 169, 174, 198, 202, 216, 217, 221, 
238, 245, 248, 256, 323, 325, 377 
Peats 176 
Pelican Key 320 

Pesticides 245, (See also Organochlorines) 
Petersen Key 118, 144 
Peterson Key Bank 261 
pH (See Water chemistry) 

Pigeon Key 156, 256, 325 
Pigeon Shoal 156 
Pine Island Sound 144 
Pine Key 363 

Plankton 129, 130, 154, 199, 204, 210, 

214, 242, 268, 288, 289, 309, 317, 336, 
350, 365 

Plantation Key 300 

Pleistocene 125, 127, 135, 156, 159, 162, 

175, 186, 191, 200, 201, 203, 216, 221, 

229, 239, 245, 256, 258, 282, 296, 298, 

300, 301, 317, 324, 325, 328, 330, 331, 

342, 344, 354, 366 

Pliocene 128 

Porjoe Key 336 

Porpoise Lake 177 

Pre-Cambrian 133 

Precipitation (See Rainfall) 

Pyrolytic hydrocarbons 295 
Pyruvic acid 297 
Quaternary 345 

Rabbit Key Basin 335, 338, 343, 361 
Ragged Keys 128 
Railroad 119 

Rainfall 116, 118, 121, 132, 136, 138, 139, 

142, 147, 148, 154, 167, 175, 187, 193, 

195, 216, 218, 221, 235, 259, 265, 283, 

298, 307, 321, 350, 373 

Ramshorn Key 249, 250 

Ramshorn Spit 268, 295, 296 

Rankin Lake 338, 361 

Red tide 134 

Remote sensing 205 


501 


Reptiles 125, 268 

Alligators 201, 207 
Crocodiles 122, 131, 192, 197, 201, 
226, 234, 235, 236, 239, 240, 241, 
247, 253, 254, 259, 355, 365 
Green turtle 168 

Loggerhead seaturtles 122, 168, 177, 
180, 247, 355 

Nesting/reproduction 177, 192, 197, 
234, 235, 236, 253, 254, 259 
Snakes 257 
Turtles 265 
'Rock reefs' 275 
Rodriguez Bank 174 
Roscoe Key 293 

Russell Key 142, 256, 300, 325 
Salinity 117, 130, 134, 135, 136, 138, 
139, 141, 142, 143, 157, 160, 162, 163, 

167, 193, 199, 206, 208, 212, 214, 219, 

224, 226, 240, 241, 253, 258, 279, 280, 

281, 284, 286, 288, 289, 290, 293, 298, 

299, 305, 306, 307, 308, 321, 333, 336, 

342, 350, 352, 353, 357, 358, 365, 366, 

370 

Samphire Key 256, 325 
Sandy Key 155, 210, 318 
Sandy Key Basin 145 
Schmidt, T. W. 340 


Sea 

level 

change 120, 125 

, 127, 

, 169, 

170, 

182, 

186, 

194, 

196, 

203, 

216, 

217, 

218, 

224, 

233, 

239, 

245, 

265, 

283, 

298, 

303, 

312, 

324, 

325, 

326, 

331, 

334, 

345, 

348, 

371 








Seagrasses 117 

', 125 

, 127 

, 136 

, 162, 

180, 

185, 

205, 

206, 

210, 

212, 

214, 

218, 

219, 

221, 

235, 

251, 

252, 

256, 

258, 

261, 

263, 

267, 

269, 

270, 

271, 

272, 

275, 

276, 

277, 

279, 

280, 

281, 

284, 

286, 

289, 

290, 

291, 

292, 

294, 

296, 

300, 

302, 

305, 

308, 

309, 

311, 

313, 

314, 

315, 

318, 

322, 

323, 

326, 

332, 

333, 

334, 

335, 

338, 

340, 

341, 

343, 

344, 

345, 

347, 

348, 

350, 

353, 

354, 

355, 

356, 

357, 

358, 

361, 

362, 

365, 

366, 

368, 

369, 

370, 

374 







Community model 361 
Damage by motorboats 224 
Enrichment 279 

Sediment 118, 132, 133, 135, 141, 142, 
149, 150, 153, 155, 156, 157, 159, 160, 

161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 176, 

177, 180, 184, 185, 187, 190, 194, 195, 

196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 202, 203, 206, 

207, 216, 218, 221, 222, 224, 227, 229, 

231, 232, 233, 237, 238, 239, 246, 248, 


249, 250, 251, 256, 259, 260, 

265, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 

282, 283, 291, 294, 295, 296, 

300, 301, 302, 303, 306, 316, 

319, 325, 326, 329, 330, 331, 

335, 338, 339, 340, 342, 345, 

356, 358, 362, 377 

Chemistry 181, 183, 224 
Grain size 132 
Hydrocarbons 312 
Particle size 143, 162 
Shark Point 129 
Shark River 250, 254 
Shark River Slough 372, 375 
Shell Key 256, 299, 325 
Shell Key Basin 259, 270, 276 
Sid Key 318 

Slime mold 336, 358, 361 
Sloughs 369 

Snake Bight 117, 134, 340 
Snake Creek 195 
Snook Creek 278, 305, 320 
Soil 120, 125, 127, 217, 253, 254 
South Park Key Bank 133 
Sponges 126, 331 
Spy Key 256, 325 
Stake Key 156 
Stake Shoal 156 
Stomatopods 293 

Stratigraphy 125, 169, 177, 186, 191, 202, 
215, 224, 233, 239, 247, 256, 258, 261, 
265, 282, 296, 300, 301, 311, 317, 318, 
324, 325, 330, 331, 334 
Stromatolites 133, 191, 258 
Strong, A. M. 321 

Subenvironments 134, 283, 286, 290, 293, 

294, 298, 330, 331, 332 

Submergence 169, 170, 186, 191, 194, 265 

Sugarloaf Key 206 

Sunset Cove 338, 361 

Suspended particulates 210, 272 

Swash Key 133, 135 

Swash Keys Basin 190 

Tarpon Basin 268 

Tarpon Bay 255 

Tarpon Sound 357 

Tavernier 210, 294 

Tavernier Creek 195 

Taylor Slough 278, 305, 358, 359 

Temperature 294 

Ten Thousand Islands 121, 138, 149, 159, 
169, 197, 208, 287, 298, 335 
Thermal stress 271 
Tidal flats 360 


261, 263, 
276, 280, 
298, 299, 
317, 318, 
333, 334, 
346, 355, 


502 


Tides 338 

Tortugas 178, 179 

Totten Key 354 

Trout Cove 305, 337 

Turbidity 117, 283, 298 

Turkey Point Nuclear Power Plant 117, 235 

Twin Key 300 

Twin Key Bank 349 

Upper Cross Bank 294 

Upper Matecumbe Key 188 

Vaca Key 181, 240 

Viruses 357 

Water 377 

Water chemistry 116, 125, 134, 135, 136, 
157, 160, 162, 163, 208, 260, 270, 276, 
282, 283, 294, 297, 298, 299, 306, 310, 
330, 342, 352, 353, 355, 365 
Water circulation 203, 204, 306 
Water management 118 
Water quality 212, 350, (See Water 
chemistry) 

West Lake 343 
Wetlands 123 
Whale Harbor 195 

Whale Harbor Channel 155, 179, 182 
Whipray Key 142 

Whitewater Bay 116, 134, 136, 139, 142, 

150, 163, 167, 169, 170, 186, 197, 208, 

210, 212, 225, 244, 254, 276, 287, 292, 

300, 335, 340 
Windley Key 300 


503 













































































































































































504 











AUTHOR INDEX TO APPENDIX I 


Aisner, J. A. 255, 256, 260 
Aleander, T. R. 187 

Allen, D. M. 143, 144, 168, 177, 178, 179, 
180, 182, 183, 196 

Aller, R. C. 259, 270, 271, 316, 319, 339 

Andren, A. W. 198, 205 

Andrews, J. E. 344 

Asper, E. D. 204, 223, 248 

Atkeson, T. D. 359 

Badylak, S. 365 

Ball, M. M. 154 

Bancroft, G. T. 128, 302, 315, 321, 367, 
375 

Banks 155 
Baratta, A. M. 321 
Barber, D. G. 239 

Barber, T. R. 315, 335, 337, 347, 356 

Barkay, T. 356 

Bartleson, R. D. 305, 307 

Bartlett, D. S. 260 

Bartlett, K. B. 260 

Baucom, J. 204, 248 

Baughman, D. S. 233 

Beardsley, G. L. 175 

Beccasio, A. D. 266 

Becker, R. D. 268 

Bein, S. J. 133 

Benford, S. 334 

Berler, D. 299 

Berner, R. A. 180, 183 

Bert, T. M. 252, 266, 274, 321 

Bielsa, L. M. 274 

Bischoff, W. D. 322 

Bittaker, H. F. 218 

Bjork, R. D. 124, 364 

Blackwelder, P. L. 205 

Bock, W. D. 144, 159 

Bohnsack, J. A. 236 

Bosence, D. 294, 301, 338, 339 

Bowman, R. 302, 304 

Boyle, E. A. 115 

Brasier, M. D. 272 

Brook, I. M. 206 

Brooks, H. K. 216 

Browder, J. A. 182, 238 

Brown, J. W. 255 

Bryant, H. E. 283, 285, 287, 327 

Bryson, S. 216 

Buker, D. G. 225, 243 

Burke, C. D. 280, 322 

Burke, J. 342 


Burney, L. C. 301, 335 

Burpee, R. W. 373 

Butler, M. J. 302, 319, 346, 348 

Cable, M. A. 268 

Caffin, J. E. 247 

Calder, F. D. 335 

Caldwell, D. K. 134, 206 

Caldwell, M. C. 206 

Carballo, J. D. 206 

Carlson, P. R. 314, 315, 334, 335, 337, 356 

Carr, A. F. 125 

Carter, P. W. 227, 237 

Casagrande, D. J. 141 

Caughey, M. E. 267, 311 

Centaur Associates, Inc. 245 

Chan, H. T. 303 

Chapman, J. D. 233 

Charlton, D. S. 195 

Chase, T. L. 206 

Chester, A. J. 284, 291 

Childers, D. L. 323 

Childress, M. J. 346 

Chuensri, C. 188 

Clark, M. W. 350 

Clifton-Hadley, R. S. 334 

Cohen, A. D. 141, 176, 323, 325 

Colby, D. R. 290, 291 

Coleman, J. M. 186 

Collins, LA. 199 

Cooke, C. W. 123, 127 

Cooper, D. J. 284 

Cornell, L. H. 204, 248 

Costello, T. J. 143, 144, 168, 177, 178, 

179, 180, 182, 183, 196 

Cottrell, D. J. 323, 324, 369 

Craighead, F. C. 155, 168, 185, 194, 207 

Crapon de Caprona, A. 237 

Crill, P. M. 260 

Croker, R. A. 151, 152 

Cubit, J. D. 348, 360 

Daley, R. J. 176 

Davies, T. D. 201, 237, 245, 246, 248, 256, 
263, 269, 325 
Davis, C. C. 129 

Davis, G. E. 116, 145, 177, 200, 208, 219, 

233, 242, 246, 252, 256, 261, 274 

Davis, J. H. 125, 127 

Davis, R. 355, 370 

Davis, T. D. 323 

Dawes, C. J. 308 

Dawson, R. H. 154 


505 


DeBellevue, E. 230 
Dedick, E. 299 

DeFelice, D. R. 215, 219, 246, 257, 267 

Deffeyes, K. S. 161 

DeGrove, J. M. 110 

deLama, Y. 335 

Delfino, J. J. 374, 377 

Dewey, M. R. 270, 203, 205, 207, 327 

Dickson, L. 357 

Die, D. J. 276 

Dimitriou, D. E. 154 

Dimock, A. W. 122 

Dobkin, S. 155 

Dodge, R. E. 220 

Dodrill, G. E. 274 

Dodrill, J. W. 219, 242, 252 

Doyle, T. W. 354 

Dragovich, A. 134 

Drew, R. D. 269 

DuBar, J. R. 215 

Dubrow, D. L. 136 

Dubrow, R. B. 135 

Ducommun, J. J. 200 

Dunbar-Cooper, A. C. 253, 254, 259 

Dunson, W. A. 225, 240, 241, 257, 265 

Durako, M. J. 314, 315, 326, 335, 360, 374 

Dzou, l-P. 295, 311 

Earle, C. 374 

Egglestons, D. B. 340 

Ehrhardt, N. M. 276, 270, 205 

Eidman, M. 163 

Emerson, J. 141 

Emiliani, C. 129 

Enos, P. 157, 176, 247, 257 

Evenson, E. B. 260 

Evink, G. L. 252 

Ewald, J. J. 154 

Fennema, R. J. 321, 359 

Field, J. M. 340 

Finucane, J. H. 134, 199 

Fleece, J. B. 155, 163 

Fleming, D. M. 192 

Flora, M. 355 

Flora, M. D. 132 

Fong, P. 361 

Fonseca, M. S. 200 

Forcucci, D. 319 

Forrester, A. 354 

Foster, S. M. 239 

Fotheringham, N. 266 

Fourqurean, J. W. 247, 251, 279, 200, 314, 
315, 323, 336, 344, 349, 355, 362, 370 
Frankovich, T. A. 347, 362 
Frederick, B. C. 123 


Frederick, P. C. 376 

Frewin, N. L. 362 

Friedmann, E. I. 202 

Frohring, P. C. 226, 234 

Frost, I. C. 207 

Fry, B. 300 

Fuhr, J. M. 300, 320 

Funicelli, N. A. 203, 205, 207, 327 

Galli, G. 326 

Galtsoff, P. 134 

Garcia, L. 374 

Gardner, G. 230 

Garrett, G. S. 304 

Gebelein, C. 202 

Gelsanliter, S. 123 

Gentry, R. C. 216 

George, R. Y. 129 

Getter, C. D. 211, 214 

Gilbert, C. R. 230 

Gilbert, V. D. 155 

Gilmore, R. G. 309 

Ginsburg, R. N. 131, 133, 135, 142, 153, 

197, 202, 275, 362 

Given, P. H. 141, 190 

Gleason, P. J. 216 

Gleece, J. B. 161 

Goodell, H. G. 157, 163 

Goodwin, S. D. 271 

Goodyear, C. P. 343 

Gorsline, D. S. 157, 160, 164 

Gorte, R. W. 363 

Gottgens, J. F. 307, 374, 377 

Gough, L. P. 377 

Grady, W. C. 200 

Green, M. A. 190 

Green, O. R. 272 

Griffin, G. M. 194, 190 

Gruber, S. H. 253, 320 

Guentzel, J. L. 376 

Guzikowski, M. 299 

Hall, R. J. 234 

Halley, R. B. 119, 220, 232 

Hallock, P. 356 

Halpern, J. A. 170 

Hanisak, M. D. 377 

Hansen, L. J. 270 

Hanson, K. 110, 371 

Harbaugh, J. W. 149 

Harper, D. E. 236 

Harrigan, P. 274, 276 

Harris, C. 204 

Harris, M. W. 366 

Harrison, S. A. 299, 307 

Harriss, R. C. 190, 260 


506 


Harwell, M. A. 361 
Heald, E. J. 190, 374 
Heatwole, D. 281 
Heatwole, D. W. 295 
Hedin, B. 335 

Hendri, G. Y. 196, 222, 275 

Herrnkind, W. F. 302, 318, 346 

Hettler, W. F. 286, 288, 290, 291, 299 

Higer, A. L. 163 

Higman, J. B. 154 

Hill, A. R. 268 

Hilsenbeck, C. A. 208 

Hoffmeister, J. E. 183, 191, 216 

Holden, M. W. 168, 177 

Holliday, V. E. 295, 296 

Holmquist, J. G. 286, 289, 290, 293, 294, 

332 

Holt, E. G. 122 
Horvath, G. J. 198 
Hoss, D. E. 288 
Hovis, J. A. 304 
Hovorka, S. D. 221 
Hower, J. 159 

Hudson, J. H. 117, 119, 129, 177, 180, 182, 
220, 230 

Hughes, D. A. 190, 193, 203 
Huh, O. K. 264 

Hunt, J. H. 258, 295, 319, 346 
Idyll, C. P. 164, 167, 177, 182, 184 
Irvine, A. B. 247 
Isdale, P. J. 117 
Isham, L. B. 133 

Iversen, E. S. 153, 160, 164, 167, 182, 188 

Iverson, R. L. 218, 251 

Jenkins, R. V. 259, 275, 328 

Jiang, S. C. 357 

Johnson, R. 359 

Johnston, C. S. 268 

Jones, A. C. 140, 154, 157, 179 

Jones, J. I. 207 

Jones, R. 354, 355 

Jones, R. D. 336, 362 

Juster, T. 350 

Kaiser, T. E. 234 

Kavanaugh, R. 356 

Kellogg, C. A. 357 

Kennedy, F. S. 239, 258, 295 

Kenworthy, W. J. 279, 280 

Kerr, S. D. 203 

Kick, R. M. 261 

Kieber, D. J. 296, 310 

Kilby, J. D. 134 

King, C. A. 297 

King, J. E. 130 


Klein, H. 163, 196, 222 
Kline, N. C. 192, 304 
Klukas, R. W. 180 
Knight, C. D. 315, 316 
Kochman, H. I. 247 
Kolipinski, M. C. 163 
Kontrovitz, M. 181 
Kotra, R. K. 377 
Kramer, P. A, 119 
Kramer, P. A. 350 
Krishnan, N. 338 
Kuehn, D. 269 
Kump, L. R. 352 
Kuperberg, J. 133 

Kushlan, J. A. 218, 226, 234, 236, 259 

Kuss, K. M. 360 

Kuta, K. G. 350 

Laban, E. 342 

Labisky, R. F. 274 

LaCroi, M. W. 343 

Lagas, P. J. 268 

Lahiff, L. 373 

Landing, W. M. 376 

Lapointe, B. E. 277, 304, 350, 368 

Larson, D. K. 277 

Layman, J. W. 221 

Ledder, D. A. 234 

Leder, J. J. 119 

Lee, C. C. 181 

Lensch, C. 268 

Lew, R. M. 132 

Lewis, F. G. 301, 333, 335 

Lewis, R. R. 127 

Ley, J. A. 305, 306, 307, 320, 337, 351, 
364 

Lidz, B. H. 226, 345, 366 

Lindall, W. N. 204 

Lindberg, E. 204 

Lipcius, R. N. 348 

Livingston, R. J. 310, 326 

Lloyd, R. M. 143, 156 

Loftus, W. F. 234, 278 

Loope, L. L. 242 

Lowenstam, H. A. 142 

Ludwig, G. M. 283, 285, 287, 327 

Luttrell, P. E. 221 

Lutz, P. L. 253, 254 

Lynts, G. W. 142, 160, 161, 162, 178, 215, 
246, 257 

Lyons, W. G. 239, 258, 316 
MacArthur, D. 233 
Machusak, D. D. 352 
Mackin, J. E. 316 
Macko, S. A. 274, 308 


507 


Mahadevan, S. 281 
Manire, C. A. 320 

Manker, J. P. 189, 194, 198, 209, 268 

Manning, R. B. 135, 136, 143, 157 

Martin, D. M. 372 

Martin, E. L. 161 

Mattraw, H. 198 

Maul, G. A. 118, 371, 372 

May, J. A. 247 

Maynard, N. G. 176, 187 

Mazzotti, F. J. 197, 225, 234, 235, 236, 

259 

McCallum, J. S. 135, 204 

McClanahan, T. R. 352, 353 

McClellan, D. B. 236 

McElhaney, P. T. 291 

McEwen, R. S. 202 

Mclvor, C. C. 268, 303, 337, 364 

McKenzie, M. D. 205 

McNeill, D. 299 

McNulty, J. K. 204 

McPherson, B. F. 196, 222 

Meeder, J. F. 120, 354 

Meeder, L. B. 120, 121 

Meineke, D. A. 283, 285, 287, 327 

Mengel, L. J. 283, 285, 287, 327 

Merriam, D. F. 259, 281, 297, 298, 317, 

318, 327, 328, 329, 330 

Michelson, S. I. 268 

Milano, G. R. 239 

Miller, E. M. 126 

Miller, S. L. 377 

Miranda, R. M. 311 

Mitchell-Tapping, H. J. 258, 311 

Mitterer, R. N. 227, 237, 311 

Moffler, M. D. 374 

Monro, S. L. 179 

Montague, C. L. 305, 306, 307, 320, 337 

Moore, J. C. 130, 131, 132 

Moore, W. E. 132 

Mopper, K. 296 

Morehead, J. M. 275 

Morelock, J. 196 

Morrison, D. 242, 261 

Mossom, S. 123 

Muehlenbachs, K. 342 

Muehlstein, L. K. 332 

Muhelstein, L. 315 

Mukherki, K. K. 330 

Muller, G. 184 

Muller, J. 184 

Multer, H. G. 183, 191, 219 

Murdich, H. 274 

Murphy, P. L. 343 


Murphy, T. D. 221 
Muthiga, N. A. 353 
Myers, R. L. 371 
Nelsen, J. E. 275 
O'Brien, J. J. 354 
O'Brien, N. R. 216 
O'Connell, J. D, 304 

Odell, D. K. 204, 210, 211, 212, 223, 248, 
345 

Odum, H. T. 238 
Odum, W. E. 268, 374 

Ogden, J. C. 124, 191, 192, 200, 239, 317, 
372 

Olmstead, I. C. 242 

Orem, W. H. 377 

Overstreet, R. M. 166 

Owen, R. E. 278 

Palacas, J. G. 207 

Parker, G. G. 127, 216 

Parkinson, R. W. 120 

Parks, J. M. 268, 296 

Parsons, G. R. 273 

Patterson, W. P. 342 

Patty, P. C. 234 

Paul, J. P. 357 

Paul, R. T. 124 

Peebles, M. W. 356 

Perkins, B. F. 133 

Perkins, R. D. 157, 205, 227, 247 

Perrine, D. 287 

Peters, D. S. 288, 342 

Peters, D. W. 299, 300 

Philips, E. J. 365 

Pierce, A. H. 233 

Pierce, E. L. 159 

Pike, S. F. 312 

Pollman, C. D. 376 

Poole, A. 239, 241 

Porter, D. 315, 332, 357 

Powell, A. B. 288 

Powell, A. H. 122, 124 

Powell, G. V. N 314 

Powell, G. V. N. 117, 119, 122, 124, 262, 

279, 286, 289, 293, 294, 304, 312, 314, 

318, 323, 332, 376 

Powell, W. M. 280 

Powell. G. V. N. 290 

Price, W. A. 168, 185 

Quinn, T. M. 282, 297, 318, 329 

Ramus, A. P 277 

Rawlinson, C. W. 335 
Raymond, R. J. 248, 263 
Redesco, T. A. 334 
Redfield, A. E. 266 


508 


Reese, C. J. 365 
Rehrer, R. G. 179 
Restrepo, V. R. 276 
Reynolds, J. E. 345 
Rich, J. 269 
Richardson, C. J. 356 
Richardson, L. L. 350, 365 
Ring, R. E. 207 
Rinkel, M. O. 207 
Risi, J. A. 123 

Robblee, M. B. 117, 119, 141, 205, 265, 
303, 314, 315, 332, 340, 354, 355, 366, 
370 

Roberts, A. A. 207 

Roberts, H. H. 223, 230, 231, 264 

Robertson, M. L. 271 

Robertson, W. B. 124, 192, 200, 234 

Robins, C. R. 145 

Roeslerr, M. 184 

Roessler, M. 184 

Roessler, M. A. 179, 188 

Rood, B. E. 374, 377 

Rose, J. B. 357 

Rose, P. R. 226 

Rosendahl, P. C. 132 

Rosenfeld, J. K. 229, 249 

Ross, D. E. 300 

Ross, M. S. 354 

Roth, W. C. 202 

Rouse, L. J. 230, 264 

Rouse, W. 197 

Rouse. L. J. 230 

Ruble, R. M. 307 

Rude, P. D. 319, 339, 345 

Rudnick, D. T. 365 

Russel, R. J. 194 

Russell, R. P. 242 

Rutherford, E. S. 146, 147, 148, 154, 213, 

225, 243, 278 

Ryan, J. D. 301, 333, 335 

Saouter, E. 356 

Sastrakusumah, S. 164 

Sawicki, R. J. 315, 354, 367, 375 

Schaffner, F. C. 318 

Schirripa, M. J. 343 

Schmidt, T. W. 116, 146, 200, 210, 212, 
213, 250, 254, 340 
Schold, G. P. 232 

Scholl, D. W. 168, 169, 171, 181, 185, 186, 
194 

Schomer, N. S. 269 
Schroeder, R. E. 170 
Schropp, S. J. 301, 333, 335 
Scott, G. P. 278 


Seaman, W. J. 298 
Sebacher, D. I. 260 
Seidel, M. 265 

Sengupta, S. 281, 282, 298, 330 

Settle, L. 342 

Shaw, A. B. 333 

Shen, G. T. 115 

Sheridan, P. F. 343 

Shinn, E. A. 129, 153, 154, 345, 362, 366 

Simoneau, L. 288 

Simpson, C. T. 121 

Sites, R. S. 199 

Skjeveland, J. E. 287, 327 

Slack, J. F. 199 

Small, J. K. 123 

Smith, D. 338, 355 

Smith, K. N. 318 

Smith, R. E. 207 

Smith, R. G. 335 

Smith, S. L. 165, 171 

Smith, T. J. 117, 119, 268, 303, 354, 366 
Smith, W. G. 173, 186, 216, 223, 231 
Snedaker, S. C. 333, 358 
Snow, R. W. 355 

Sogard, S. M. 286, 289, 290, 293, 294, 332 
Sorensen, C. E. 259, 270, 276, 298, 330 
Spackman, W. 141, 171, 176, 216, 221, 

237, 256 
Spiker, E. C. 377 
Sprinkel, J. 281 
Sprunt, A. 161, 317 
Starck, W. A. 171 
Stehli, F. G. 159 
Steinen, R. P. 220, 232, 307 
Steinker, D. C. 233 
Stephens, J. C. 120, 217 
Sternberg, L. D. 303, 307 
Stevely, J. M. 126, 321 
Stewart, K. W. 153 

Stockman, K. W. 135, 153, 154, 183, 204 

Stone, P. 216 

Stoneburner, D. L. 259 

Strong, A. M. 128, 315, 354, 367, 375 

Studer, H. P. 165 

Stuiver, M. 186, 194 

Swart, P. K. 119, 220, 299, 303, 307, 350 
Sykes, J. E. 204 
Szmant, A. 355 
Szmant, A. M. 354 

Tabb, D. C. 130, 135, 136, 138, 140, 141, 
145, 153, 157, 181, 187, 374 
Taft, W. H. 148, 149, 160, 161, 162, 165, 
171, 187 

Tagett, M. G. 124, 302, 334, 369 


509 


Tebeau, C. W. 283 

Tedesco, L. P. 120, 367, 369 

Tetoris, S. D. 300, 341 

Thayer, G. W. 280, 284, 290, 291, 299, 

300, 343 

Thomas, L. P. 142, 149 
Thomas, T. M. 217 
Thomas, T. T. 116, 187 
Thompson, J. C. 126 
Thompson, M. J. 205 

Thue, E. B. 146, 147, 148, 154, 225, 243 

Tilmant, J. T. 126, 146, 147, 148, 154, 

213, 252, 265, 274, 355 

Tisserand Delclos, L. 250 

Tomasco, D. A. 368 

Tompkins, K. 216 

Turner, J. B. 202 

Turney, W. J. 133 

Tweedy, J. T. 154 

Tyson, R. 263 

Tyus, H. M. 196, 222 

Ullman, W. J. 259, 270 

University of Georgia 208 

Upchurch, S. B. 260 

Ushakoff, N. 374 

Vacher, H. L. 350 

Vaithiyanatahn, P. 356 

van de Kreeke, J. 338 

Van Lent, T. 358, 359 

VanArman, J. 283 

Vander Kooi, V. 233 

Vaughan, T. W. 118 

Videlock, S. L. 223, 232 

Vincent, A. C. J. 334 

Virnstein, R. W. 313 

Voorhees, S. A. 234 

Wade, R. A. 121, 122 

Wagner, S. 288 

Waldinger, F. J. 167 

Walker, N. D. 224, 230, 263, 264, 271 

Wallis, O. L. 149 

Walter, L. M. 342 

Waltham, D. 339 

Wang, J. D. 338, 368 

Wanless, H. 355 

Wanless, H. R. 119, 123, 124, 218, 239, 

251, 302, 354, 369 

Warner, R. E. 126 

Whelan, T 231 

White, D. 218 

Whiting, M. C. 177 

Wickham, D. A. 188 

Williams, R. H. 129 

Wilmers, T. 304 


Wilson, K. A. 272, 273 

Windom, H. L. 301, 335 

Woelkerling, W. J. 224 

Wood, E. J. F. 176 

Wooding, D. H. 281 

Woodroffe, C. D. 264 

Yarbro, L. A. 315, 334, 335, 337 

Yokel, B. J. 158, 160, 164, 167, 182, 188, 

197 

Zieman, J. C. 224, 251, 271, 274, 279, 308, 
313, 314, 315, 336, 344, 347, 355, 370 
Zieman, R. T. 315 
Zimmerman, P. J. 281, 328 


510 


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